Perspectives in Pharmacy - History of Pharmacy Reviewer

Primitive probing

- learned from instinct
- through observation of birds and beasts
- through soothing application of cool water, leaf, dirt, or mud
- by trial and error

Shaman

- served as a medium between the visible world and an invisible spirit world
- practiced magic or sorcery for purposes of healing, divination, and control over natural events

Shaman

- used magical potions for curing
- in charged of all or most things supernatural in a tribe
- diagnosed and treated most serious or chronic illness
- compounded the remedies needed to stave off the influences of evil spells or spirits

Antiquity

Civilization developed in the major river valleys of Africa and Asia that gradually influenced the concepts of disease and healing

Nile valley, Tigris Euphrates valley, Indus valley, Yellow river

4 valleys/rivers during Antiquity period

Babylon

- jewel of ancient Mesopotamia
- “Cradle of civilization“
- provided the earliest known record of practice of the art of the apothecary

Clay tablets

- medical texts were recorded in this material during the ancient Babylon

Priest, pharmacist, and physician

3 practitioners in ancient Babylon

Ninazu

- city god of Enegi
- “Steward of the underworld“

Ningishzida

- son of Ninazu
- associated with vegetation, growth and decay, snakes and demons
- “Lord of pastures and fields“
- “Like fresh grass“
- “Lord of the innkeepers“

Baru, ashipu, and asu

3 categories of medical practitioners in ancient Mesopotamia

Baru

- the seer-priest

Ashipu

- the exorcist or incantation priest
- relied more heavily on spells and used magical stones far more than plant materials

Asu

- the physician priest
- drew upon a large collection of drugs and manipulated them into several dosage forms

Gula

- means “great”
- “Goddess of Healing“ and “Patron of Physicians'“

Asshurbanipal

- collected 800 tablets or parts of tablets containing medical material
- has revealed roughly 250 drugs of vegetable origins, 120 of mineral origins, and 180 from other sources

Thoth

- the Egyptian inventor of science and medicine and patron of physicians

Imhotep

- was identified by the Greeks with their own Asclepios

Echelons

- gatherers and preparers of drugs

Chiefs of fabrication

- head pharmacists

House of Life

- the Echelons and chiefs of fabrication worked here

Papyrus Ebers

- best known and most important pharmaceutical record from ancient history
- collection of recipes that contains 811 prescriptions and mentions some 700 drugs

Shen Nung

- father of pharmaceutics
- author of pen-ts’ao

Pen-ts’ao

- this book includes medicinal plants, such as podophyllum, rhubarb, ginseng, stramonium, cinnamon bark, and ma-huang, or Ephedra

Diocles of Carystus

- hw lived in Athens in the late fourth century BC
- the most important of the rhizomotoi, or professional collectors of plant roots
- he was considered to be the source for all Greek pharmacotherapeutic treatises between the time of Theophrastus and Dioscorides

Aristotle

- he forged a conceptual link between the environment and humanity by connecting the four elements to four governing humors of the body

Blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm

4 governing humors of the body

Hippocrates

- father of modern medicine

Theoprastus

- father of botany
- De Historia Plantarum
- De Causis Plantarum

Middle Ages

- defined as the period from the first fall of Rome (400 AD) to the fall of Constantinople (1453)

Pedanios Dioscorides

- he wrote De Materia Medica

De Materia Medica

- contains more than 600 plants, 35 animal products, and 90 minerals
- became the standard encyclopedia of drugs for hundreds of years

Asclepios

- “The greatest of the healing god“

Hygeia

- daughter of Asclepios
- carried a magical serpent and a bowl of healing medicine

Magical serpent and a bowl of healing medicine

Symbol of pharmacy

Galen

- well-trained and experienced Greek physician in the 2nd Century AD
- he practiced and taught both Pharmacy and Medicine in Rome
- his principles of preparing and compounding medicines ruled in the western world for 1500 years

Galenicals

- originated from Galen
- class of pharmaceuticals compounded by mechanical means

Polypharmaceutical preparations

- known as “shotgun prescriptions” today

Methodo medendi

- book of Galen
- “On the Art of Healing“

Hiera picra

- oldest pharmaceutical compound in existence

Terra Sigillata

- an early “trademarked“ drug
- a greasy clay containing silica, alumina, chalk, magnesia, and a little oxide of iron
- a clay tablet originating on the Mediterranean island of Lemnos before 500 B.C.
- used as an antidote for poisons, dysenteries, fevers and other illnesses

Theriaca

- the pharmaceutical par excellence
- contained varying number of ingredients, sometimes more than seventy
- contents were largely herbal, opium playing a prominent role, castoreum, viper flesh and skink
- intended as an antidote to the bites of wild creatures, became eventually a universal antidote for poisons and remedy used in many illnesses

Galenics

- the term for the preparation and testing of such medicaments

Mithridates VI

- the royal toxicologist

Baghdad

- first apothecary shops

Avicenna

- a Persian philosopher, physician, poet, diplomat, and pharmacist
- “Persian Galen“
- he gave contribution to the sciences of pharmacy and medicine by his pharmaceutical teachings

Canon Medicinae

- wrote by Avicenna
- contained a treatise on poisons, sections on the preparation of medicines, and a long list of medicinal recipes

Damian and Cosmas

- twin brothers of Arabian descent and devout Christians
- one is an apothecary, and the other is a physician
- considered as patron saints, twinship of the health professions, pharmacy, and medicine

Christianity

- the healing power of faith and divine intervention

Monasteries

- the centers of intellectual life including pharmaco-medical study, as well as practice

Monks

- in monastic pharmacy, they are the ones who gather herbs and raise them in their own herb gardens

Antidotaria and Receptaria

2 traditional types of Latin compilations

Antidotaria

- they are similar to dispensatories

Receptaria

- more modest formularies, book of standards

Frederick II

- a German emperor who legally separated pharmacy from medicine in southern Italy and Sicily

Paracelsus

- Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim
- he was a Swiss surgeon
- was considered as a medical rebel who represented well the combined attitudes of the common man, the scholarly physician, the practical surgeon and the alchemist
- the most important advocate of chemically prepared drugs from crude plant and mineral substances
- he believed astrology

Dispensatorium of Valerius Cordus

- he was the first pharmacopeia which was adopted by the government of Nuremberg, Germany in 1546

Boston, New York and Philadelphia

2 areas where apothecary shops first appeared

Dispensing physician, apothecary shop, general store, and wholesale druggist

Four distinct types of pharmacies during 18th century

Pennsylvania Hospital

- the location where the first hospital pharmacy was established

Benjamin Franklin

- he established the first hospital pharmacy

Jonathan Roberts

- the first hospital pharmacist

John Morgan

- a pharmacist and a physician championed prescription writing and the separation of the two professions

Christopher Marshall

- an Irish immigrant who developed a pioneer pharmaceutical enterprise
- he earned the title, The “Fighting Quaker” revolution

Marshall Apothecary in Philadelphia

- a leading retail pharmacy, large-scale chemical manufacturer
- a place for training pharmacists
- an important supply depot during the American Revolution

William Procter Jr.

- the Father of American Pharmacy
- founder of the American Pharmaceutical Association (APhA) in 1852

Daniel B. Smith

- the first president of American Pharmaceutical Association

American Pharmaceutical Association

- opened membership to all pharmaceutists and druggists of good character who subscribed to its constitution and its Code of Ethics

Druggists

- those who manufactured and sold drugs and medicines
- practitioners who limited themselves to drug-selling and medicinal preparations
- served as wholesalers of the drugs and medicines used by apothecaries, surgeons, midwives and physicians

Harvey Whitney

- he started the first hospital pharmacy internship program

Carl Wilhelm Scheele

- discovered oxygen in 1773, as well as chlorine, glycerin, and several inorganic acids
- “Father of Modern Plant Chemistry”

Martin Klaproth

- pioneered the field of analytical chemistry
- like Scheele, he made his discoveries using the equipment of the pharmacy in which he worked

Henri Moissan

- a French pharmacist who received the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1906 for his isolation of fluorine

Antoine Balard

- a French pharmacist who discovered bromine

Pierre Robiquet

a French pharmacist who isolated codeine

Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertürner

- a German apothecary who gave the world opium’s chief narcotic principle: morphine
- extracted morphine from crude opium
- reorganized and proved the importance of a new class of organic substance: alkaloids

Ernest Francois Auguste Fourneau

a French pharmacist who successfully developed new chemical compounds, specifically created to fight disease-causing organisms in the body

Institute Pasteur

a world-renowned chemical laboratories in Paris

Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienairne Caventou

- two French pharmacists who isolated emetine from ipecacuanha in 1817; strychnine and brucine from nux vomica in 1818
- they announced the methods of separation of quinine and cinchonine from the cinchona barks; prepared pure salts, had them tested clinically, and set up manufacturing facilities

Stanislas Limousin

- a French retail pharmacist who introduced devices like medicine dropper, the system of coloring poisons (such as corrosive sublimate), and wafer cachets (which found favor to mass production of the gelatin capsule)

Boehringer and Roux

- two pharmaceutical scientists both in Europe and US who announced the effectiveness of diphtheria antitoxin and immediately put the new discovery into production

Park, Davis and Company

- the company that made the serum available to the public

Park-Davis

- received the US Biological License No. 1.
- since then, lives of thousands of children were saved
- inoculation of horses with diphtheria toxin was the first step of many producing antitoxin

Henry Hurd Rusby

- he opened vast new horizons for the advancement of Pharmacy and Medicine, late in the nineteenth century
- became the Dean of the College of Pharmacy of Columbia University

Louis Pasteur

- he authored the germ theory of disease and discovered the rabies vaccine

Paul Ehrlich

- he introduced Salvarsan in 1910

Salvarsan

- the first chemotherapeutic agent

Alexander Fleming

- he developed penicillin in 1929

Florey and Chain

- they further studied penicillin in 1940