Comm Exam #3

Three themes in the history of the recording industry

* Sound (or audio) recordings did not arrive as a result of one inventor’s grand change.
* Audio recording as a medium of communication developed as a result of social and legal responses to technology during different periods.
* The recording industry developed and changed as a result of struggles to control audio recordings and how they reach an audience.

Overview of modern recording history

* its ownership is international
* its production is dispersed
* its distribution is concentrated

downloading

transfer of data or program from a server or host computer to one’s own computer or digital device

streaming

the process in which users receive and listen to music on their own devices as it is being sent to them without permanent download

album

a collection of a dozen or more individual songs

single

a product that contains only one or two individual musical recordings

internet radio

pre-chosen music streams based around certain genres provided free to listeners and paid for by commercial advertisements, much like a radio station

total album equivalent

physical album purchases + “track-equivalent albums” (TEA) + “streaming-equivalent albums” (SEA)

label

a division of a recording firm that releases a certain type of music and reflects a certain personality

A&R (artist and repertoire)

recording firm executives who screen new acts for a firm and determine whether to sign those acts

royalty

the share of money paid to a songwriter or music composer out of the money that the production firm receives from the sale or exhibition of a work

performance royalties

money paid to composers, their publishers, and their record labels when their material is used (live or recorded) in front of audiences via stage acts, jukeboxes, radio, television, or online radio

mechanical royalties

money collected as a result of the sale of physical media (e.g., CDs) and the sale or download of digital recordings, including albums, individual tracks, and ringtones

promotion

the process of scheduling publicity appearances for a recording artist, with the goal of generating excitement about the artist and thereby sales of his or her album

payola

an activity in which promotion personnel pay money (or drugs and noncash favors) to radio personnel to ensure that the latter will devote airtime to artists that the former’s recording companies represent

streaming audio

the flow of sounds (usually music) to listeners iin such a way that the sounds are meant to disappear after that are heard

frequency modulation (FM)

a means of radio broadcasting, utilizing the band between 88 and 108 megahertz; FM signals are marked by high levels of clarity but rarely travel more than 80 miles from the site of their transmission

amplitude modulation (AM)

a means of radio broadcasting, utilizing the band between 540 and 1,700 megahertz; AM signals are prone to frequent static interference, but their high-powered signals allow them to travel great distances, especially at night

commercial stations

radio stations that support themselves financially by selling time on their airwaves to advertisers

noncommercial stations

radio stations that do not receive financial support from advertisers

billboards

the mention of a sponsor’s name or products at the start or end of an aired program in return for money

curated streaming audio

company selects the specific songs for the listener

non-curated streaming audio

gives the listener control over the specific selection and flow of material (ex. particular album, own playlist)

radio format

the personality of a station, designed to attract a particular audience segment

music style

the aspect of a radio station’s format that refers to the type of music the station plays

music time period

the aspect of a radio station’s format that refers to the release date of the music that the station plays (ex. “contemporary,” “oldies”)

activity level

the aspect of a radio station’s format that refers to the played music’s dynamic impact (ex. “soft rock,” “smooth jazz”)

music sophistication

the aspect of a radio station’s format that refers to the simplicity or complexity of the musical structure and lyrical content of the music played

format consultant

individuals hired by a radio station to analyze the competition and select a format that will attract the most lucrative audience niche possible

narrowcasting

going after specific slices of the radio audience that are especially attractive to advertisers

listening patterns

the habits that describe people’s use of the radio

playlist

the roster or lineup of songs that a radio station can play on the air during a given period of time

burn music test

surveying people to determine which songs still draw interest and which have lost their popularity (or “burned out”)

focus group

assemblages of eight to ten carefully chosen people who are asked to discuss their habits and opinions about one or more topics

fringe listeners

listeners who fall within the target audience but rarely listen to a particular station

core audience

listeners who spend a lot of time listening to a radio station

format clock (format wheel)

a circular chart that divides one hour of a radio station’s format into different timed program elements

drive time

early weekday mornings and late afternoons—when people are driving to and from work—when radio stations expect to capture their largest audience

network

a company that distributes programs simultaneously to radio stations that agree to carry a substantial amount of its material on an ongoing basis; typically, a network provides a regular schedule of programming material to its affiliate stations for broadcast

syndicators

a company that licenses programming to radio stations on a market-by-market basis

format networks

programming firms that provide subscribing radio stations with all the programming they need to fill their airwaves 24 hours a day, seven days a week; often the station needs only to insert local commercial spots into the programming

barter

practice in which a syndicator provides the radio program and keeps a number of minutes for the sale of commercials to advertisers

local advertising

advertising money that comes from companies within listening range of the radio station

national spot advertising

form of advertising in which airtime is purchased from a local radio station by national advertisers or their representatives

network advertising

form of radio advertising in which national advertisers or their representatives purchase airtime not from local radio stations but from the network that serves the radio station

digital advertising

all revenue coming from the radio station’s website or app

HD (hybrid digital/analog) radio

a system in which AM and FM stations send digital signals alongside traditional analog signals over frequencies originally allocated for analogonly transmission, allows better audio quality and more channels

radio promotion

a radio contest or event in which prizes are given out

portable people meter (PPM)

Nielsen’s electronic device for tracking radio listening both at home and on the street

streaming audio measurement

service that brings together data it collects from people’s apps or web players (along with third-party information about those people) with data it gets from its diaries and PPMs

rating point

one rating point equals 1 percent of the population in a market, stations are considered successful if the have a 4 or 5 rating point

star system

an operation designed to find and cultivate actors under long-term contracts, with the intention of developing those actors into famous “stars” who would enhance the profitability of the studio’s films

A films

expensively made productions featuring glamorous, highly paid stars

B films

lower-budget films that were made quickly

theatrical films

films created to be shown first in traditional movie theaters

box office receipts

the sum of money taken in for admission at movie theaters around the country

blockbusters

films that bring in more than $200 million at the US box office

multiplex

a modern building that houses between eight and 15 screens and has the capacity to exhibit a number of different films at the same time

megaplex

a modern, air-conditioned building that houses 16 or more screens and has the capacity to exhibit a number of different films at the same time

the majors

the five most powerful companies in Hollywood because of their distribution power

film production firms

companies involved in coming up with story ideas, finding scriptwriters, hiring the personnel needed to make the movie, and making sure the work is carried out on time and on budget

film distribution firms

companies responsible for finding theaters in which to show the movies around the world and for promoting the films to the public

independent producers

production firms that are not owned by a distributor

talent agents

individuals who represent various creative personnel (e.g., actors, directors, authors, and screenwriters) and aim to link them with production firms in exchange for a percentage of the creators’ revenues from the finished product

pitch

the initial presentation of a movie idea to a producer

treatment

detailed outline of an initial pitch to executives of a production or distribution firm; if the executives approve of the treatment, they will probably order a script to be written

on spec

writing a script for a film without a contract to do so, with the hope that when the script is passed along to various production firms by the scriptwriter’s agent, it will be bid for and purchased

green light

a term used to describe production and distribution executives’ approval of the making of a particular film

back-end deal (percentage of the gross)

a deal in which a production firm convinces a famous actor or director to take a lower salary in exchange for getting a percentage of the money that the production firm receives from the distributor

guilds

unions established by writers, directors, actors, and other crew members to protect their mutual interests and maintain standards

distribution rights

the rights to circulate a particular movie in different parts of the world

line producer

the individual who makes sure the equipment and personnel are there when they are needed

completion bond companies

insurance companies that, for a large fee, pay any costs that exceed an agreed-upon amount for a film

release patterns

* wide release (the opening of a film in more than 600 theaters simultaneously, usually accompanied by a large publicity campaign to entice people to see the film; the most common release pattern in the United States)
* saturation release (the initial release of a film in more than 2,000 theaters simultaneously)
* limited release (the release of a film to only a handful of carefully selected theaters around the country)

block booking

when movie distributors force exhibitors to book blocks of their films

title testing

conducting interviews with filmgoers in shopping malls and other public places to determine the most alluring name for an upcoming picture

previewing

a type of concept testing that takes place before a film is formally released

rough cut

a preliminary version of a movie

publicity

the process of creating and maintaining favorable “buzz” about a movie among its target audiences

word of mouth

the discussions that people who see the movie have with their friends in person and on social media sites such as Facebook

tracking studies

research on the public’s awareness of and interest in a film, beginning two weeks before the film’s release and continuing through the film’s first month of release

negative cost

the total cost of making and editing the movie

bookers

people who license movies from distributors for theaters

exhibition license

an agreement between a distributor and an exhibition firm that specifies the date on which the distributor will make the film available to the exhibition firm’s theaters, the number of weeks the theaters agree to run the film, and when and where competing theaters can show the same film; it also sets the financial arrangements between the distributor and the exhibition firm

percentage-above-the-nut approach

an agreement drawn between a distributor and an exhibition firm in which the executives of the exhibition firm and the distribution firm agree on the costs of operating each theater (electricity, salaries, rent, maintenance, and the like)—a break-even point called the nut; then, film by film, the distributor and the exhibition firm negotiate what percentage of revenues “above the nut” the exhibition firm will pay to the distribution firm

digital cinema package (DCP)

a computer file shipment of a movie

sell-through outlets

stores in which consumers buy the videos rather than just rent them

rental outlets

companies that purchase releases from movie distributors and then rent them to individual customers on a pay-per-day basis

film piracy

the unauthorized duplication of copyrighted films for profit

art films

movies created on small budgets that often do not fit into Hollywood stereotypes and standard genres

residual

financial compensation paid to the actors, directors, and others involved in making the movies when they appear on TV DVD release, or online streaming

types of video on demand (VOD)

* cable and satellite
* transaction video on demand (TVOD): paying for download or rental
* subscription video on demand (SVOD): Netflix, Disney+, etc
* advertising-based video on demand (SVOD): pay+ads for movies

television broadcasting

scanning a visual image and transmitting it, generally with accompanying sound, in the form of electromagnetic waves that, when received, can be reconverted into visual images

broadcast live

broadcast as it was actually being performed, rather than being taped, filmed, or otherwise recorded

golden age of television

the period from approximately 1949 to 1960, marked by the proliferation of original and classic dramas produced for live television

linear viewing

that people watch programs at the time and in the order the networks or local stations display them

audiovisual/video streaming

involves audiovisual material over the internet to people’s devices when they request it

nonlinear viewing

when people watch audiovisual programs when they want to watch them

commercial stations

broadcast television stations that support themselves financially by selling time on their airwaves to advertisers

noncommercial stations

broadcast television stations that do not receive financial support from advertisers, but rather support themselves through donations from listeners and private foundations and from commercial firms in return for mentioning the firm or its products in announcements at the beginning and end of programs airing on the station