Early Human Migrations, Paleolithic Societies, and the Agricultural Revolution

What percentage of human history does Chapter 1 cover?

Over 95 percent of the time Homo sapiens have been on Earth.

What major transition does Chapter 1 focus on?

The transition from the Paleolithic era to the Neolithic or Agricultural Revolution.

Where did Homo sapiens first emerge?

In the grasslands of eastern and southern Africa.

What time period marks the emergence of Homo sapiens?

Around 200,000 to 250,000 years ago.

What were some early human behaviors identified in Africa?

Inhabiting new environments, technological innovations, evidence of hunting and fishing, planned settlements, and use of body ornaments.

What significant archaeological site in South Africa provides evidence of early human behavior?

Blombos Cave, which contained a 100,000-year-old ochre-processing workshop.

When did humans begin migrating out of Africa?

Between 100,000 and 60,000 years ago.

What geographical changes facilitated human migration during the last Ice Age?

Lower sea levels created land bridges between regions.

What were the first migration routes taken by humans into Eurasia?

Into the Middle East, then west into Europe and east into Asia.

What technological advancements did humans develop in Europe?

Spear throwers, bows, and extensive cave paintings.

What cultural artifacts suggest communication networks across Eurasia?

Venus figurines, carved female figures with exaggerated features.

When did humans migrate to Australia and what was significant about this migration?

Around 60,000 years ago; it was the first to involve the use of boats.

What is the Dreamtime in Aboriginal culture?

A complex worldview that recounts the beginning of things and links current inhabitants to the land and their ancestors.

When did humans migrate to the Americas and how did they do it?

Between 30,000 and 15,000 years ago, via the Bering Strait land bridge or by sea down the west coast.

What is the Clovis culture known for?

Being the first widespread cultural tradition in the Americas, known for hunting large mammals like mammoths.

What coincided with the disappearance of Clovis culture around 11,000 years ago?

A megafaunal extinction of large animals.

What was the last phase of human migration and when did it start?

Migration into the Pacific, starting around 3,500 years ago.

What impact did Austronesian-speaking agricultural peoples have on the Pacific?

They created highly stratified societies (chiefdoms) and caused ecological impacts, including deforestation and extinction of many animal species.

What characterized Paleolithic societies in terms of organization?

They were small, organized in bands of 25 to 50 people with kinship-based relationships.

What characterized the social structure of Paleolithic societies?

They were nomadic or seasonally mobile, highly egalitarian, lacking formal chiefs, kings, or priests, with few inequalities of wealth and power.

How did gender roles differ in Paleolithic societies compared to later societies?

Relationships between men and women were more equal, with women often being primary food gatherers, providing up to 70 percent of the family's sustenance.

What evidence suggests that Paleolithic people had a rich interior life?

Evidence includes rock art, ceremonial sites, elaborate burials, and the presence of shamans who dealt with the spirit world.

What was the impact of the end of the last Ice Age on nomadic communities?

It allowed some nomadic communities to settle in more permanent villages, leading to larger, more complex societies and the accumulation of goods.

What is Göbekli Tepe and why is it significant?

Göbekli Tepe is a monumental ceremonial complex built by gathering and hunting peoples around 12,000 years ago, challenging the notion that only agricultural societies could produce such structures.

What initiated the Agricultural Revolution?

The Agricultural Revolution began around 12,000 years ago with the deliberate cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals.

What does 'intensification' refer to in the context of agriculture?

Intensification refers to getting more food and resources from a much smaller area of land, supporting growing populations.

In which regions did the Agricultural Revolution occur independently?

It occurred in the Fertile Crescent, sub-Saharan Africa, China, New Guinea, and the Americas.

What environmental changes facilitated the Agricultural Revolution?

The end of the Ice Age created warmer, wetter, and more stable conditions that were conducive to agriculture.

How did the knowledge of gathering and hunting peoples contribute to agriculture?

They had developed deep knowledge of the natural world and technologies that laid the foundation for agricultural practices.

What variations existed in the Agricultural Revolution based on local resources?

The revolution varied based on the availability of domesticable plants and animals in different regions.

Why did the Fertile Crescent experience the Agricultural Revolution first?

It had an extraordinary variety of domesticable species, allowing for a rapid transition within about 500 years.

What key crops were domesticated in Africa?

Key crops included sorghum, teff, yams, and oil palm trees, with cattle domesticated in the Sahara region.

What was the situation regarding domesticable animals in the Americas during the Agricultural Revolution?

The Americas had a relative absence of domesticable animals, with only the llama and alpaca being available.

What did scholars refer to Paleolithic people as, due to their lifestyle?

Scholars referred to them as 'the original affluent society' due to their fewer working hours and more leisure time.

How did Paleolithic people alter their environments?

They used fire for 'firestick farming' and hunted some species to extinction.

What was a common aspect of religious thought among Paleolithic peoples?

Religious thought was varied, sometimes monotheistic, often featuring a strongly feminine dimension, such as the Great Goddess.

What was the role of shamans in Paleolithic societies?

Shamans acted as part-time religious specialists who dealt with the spirit world and often entered trance states.

What evidence indicates that interpersonal violence existed in Paleolithic societies?

Some studies suggest high rates of violent death despite the relative social equality.

What transition marked the beginning of social inequality in settled communities?

The accumulation of goods in larger and more complex societies led to the beginning of social inequality.

What was the significance of the Agricultural Revolution in terms of human-nature relationships?

It marked a new relationship where humans actively changed nature through domestication, creating mutual dependence.

What crop was the foundation of agriculture in the Americas?

Maize (corn)

What was the ancestor of maize?

Teosinte

How did the north/south axis of the Americas affect agriculture?

It slowed the spread of agricultural practices compared to the east/west axis of Eurasia.

What were the two main processes through which agriculture spread?

Diffusion and colonization/migration of agricultural peoples.

What often accompanied the spread of agriculture?

The spread of language families such as Indo-European, Chinese, Bantu, and Austronesian.

Which regions resisted the spread of agriculture?

Australia and parts of North America.

What were some consequences of the culture of agriculture?

Massive increase in human population, major environmental transformations, and health deteriorations.

What technological innovations were prompted by agriculture?

Pottery, weaving, metallurgy, and the secondary products revolution.

What does the village of Banpo in China exemplify?

An early agricultural settlement with houses, storage pits, kilns, and pottery.

What characterized pastoral societies?

They were mobile, organized in kinship-based clans, and had greater gender equality than agricultural civilizations.

What are agricultural village societies known for?

Retaining social and gender equality of earlier eras, often without formal states.

What is Çatalhüyük in Turkey an example of?

An early agricultural village with few signs of social inequality or male/female dominance.

What are chiefdoms?

Politically organized agricultural societies with inherited positions of power and privilege.

Where did the earliest chiefdoms emerge?

In Mesopotamia, the Pacific islands, and North America (e.g., Cahokia).

What defines a civilization according to the notes?

A large human society with concentrated populations in sizable cities, governed by states.

What are some characteristics of the first civilizations?

Large populations, governance by states, and profound differences in economic function, wealth, and status.

When did the first civilizations emerge?

Between 3500 and 500 B.C.E.

Which two civilizations emerged around 3500-3000 B.C.E.?

Sumer in Mesopotamia and Egypt in the Nile River Valley.

What was significant about Sumer?

It developed the world's first written language.

What was distinctive about the Norte Chico civilization?

It had smaller cities, an economy based on fishing, no pottery or writing discovered, and little evidence of warfare.

What is a quipu?

A recording device used by the Norte Chico civilization, though no pottery or writing was found.

What civilization developed in coastal Peru around 3000-1800 B.C.E. and is characterized by smaller cities and a rich fishing economy?

Norte Chico

What was the largest urban center of the Norte Chico civilization?

Caral

Which civilization arose in modern Pakistan during the third millennium B.C.E. and is known for its planned cities like Mohenjo Daro and Harappa?

Indus Valley civilization

What unique political organization is suggested by the lack of palaces, temples, or kings in the Indus Valley civilization?

A decentralized political organization.

What contributed to the decline of the Indus Valley civilization around 1700 B.C.E.?

Environmental degradation.

When did civilization begin in China, and which dynasties were involved?

Around 2200 B.C.E. with the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties.

What features characterized early Chinese civilization?

A centralized state, lavish tombs for rulers, and early forms of written Chinese on oracle bones.

What civilization emerged in Central Asia after 2200 B.C.E. and was known for its fortified centers and aristocratic social hierarchy?

Oxus civilization.

What was a significant aspect of the Oxus civilization despite lacking a literate culture?

It was a focal point for Eurasian exchange.

What agricultural economy did the Olmec civilization, considered the 'mother civilization' of Mesoamerica, rely on?

Maize, beans, and squash.

What notable features did the Olmec civilization have?

Ceremonial centers, monumental basalt heads, and possibly the first written language in the Americas.

What were some theories for the emergence of early civilizations?

The need to organize irrigation projects, the need for order in growing populations, and warfare.

Who argued that population density in circumscribed environments led to competition and warfare, stimulating state formation?

Robert Carneiro.

What role did cities play in the First Civilizations?

They served as political capitals, cultural centers, marketplaces, and manufacturing hubs.

What was the population of Uruk in Mesopotamia, and what was it centered around?

Around 50,000, centered on a ziggurat.

What features characterized Mohenjo Daro in the Indus Valley?

A population of 40,000, a grid-like street pattern, a complex sewage system, and a huge public bath.

How did the First Civilizations affect social inequalities?

They multiplied and magnified social inequalities, with upper classes enjoying wealth and power.

What was the status of free commoners in the First Civilizations?

They made up the vast majority of the population and supported the upper classes through surplus production.

What were the primary sources of slavery in First Civilizations?

Prisoners of war, criminals, and debtors.

How did First Civilizations impact gender roles and patriarchy?

They generated more explicit and restrictive patriarchy, subordinating women to men.

What theories explain the origins of patriarchy in early civilizations?

A new form of agriculture using animal-drawn plows, which favored male labor.

How did the rise of warfare affect the social structure in ancient civilizations?

It enhanced the power and prestige of a male warrior class, with military service restricted to men.

What was the societal view of women in relation to nature?

Women were associated with nature, which was seen as inferior to the human mastery of nature represented by culture.

How did written laws in Mesopotamia regulate female sexuality?

They codified a patriarchal family life, regulating female sexuality more strictly than male sexuality, requiring respectable women to be veiled in public.

What rights did women have in ancient Egypt compared to Mesopotamia?

Women in Egypt had greater opportunities, being recognized as legal equals to men, able to own property, administer land, make wills, and initiate divorce, without the requirement to be veiled.

Who is a notable female ruler from ancient Egypt?

Queen Hatshepsut.

What role did states play in ancient civilizations?

States provided cohesion, solving problems like irrigation, defense, and conflict adjudication, while protecting the privileges of the upper classes.

How was state authority legitimized in ancient civilizations?

It was often supported by ideas suggesting it was normal, natural, and ordained by the gods, with rulers associated with the sacred.

What was the significance of writing in ancient states?

Writing strengthened bureaucracy by keeping records, was used for propaganda, and defined elite status.

What monumental structures were built to convey the power of the state?

Pyramids, temples, ziggurats, and the Olmecs' enormous human heads likely representing rulers.

How did the Nile River influence Egyptian culture?

Its predictable flooding fostered a cheerful outlook on life and a belief in a blessed afterlife.

What impact did the Tigris and Euphrates rivers have on Mesopotamian culture?

Their unpredictability contributed to a view of a disorderly world and a gloomy afterlife.

How did the geographical features affect the vulnerability of Mesopotamia and Egypt?

Mesopotamia was more vulnerable to invasion due to its lack of natural barriers, while Egypt was protected by deserts, mountains, and seas.

What environmental challenges did Mesopotamia face?

Deforestation, soil erosion, and salinization weakened Sumerian city-states.

How was Mesopotamia organized politically?

It was organized into numerous, often-warring city-states.

What characterized the political structure of ancient Egypt?

Political power was focused on the pharaoh, believed to be a god in human form.

What was the nature of trade between Mesopotamia and Egypt?

Both civilizations engaged in long-distance trade, with Egypt's agriculture drawing on resources from Mesopotamia and both trading with regions like the Indus Valley and Africa.

How did Mesopotamian culture influence neighboring peoples?

Cultural innovations, such as the alphabetic writing system, spread to neighboring peoples like the Hebrews and various Indo-European groups.

What was the extent of Egyptian cultural influence?

Egyptian culture spread south to Nubia and into the Mediterranean basin.