BPK 142 - Osteology and Arthrology Part Two

Name all 3 reference planes of the body

• frontal plane

  • anterior and posterior portions

• sagittal plane

  • right and left sides

• transverse plane

  • superior and inferior portions

name the joint conditions

1. sprain - overstretching of ligaments

2. dislocation - bones are displaced

3. subluxation - partial dislocation

4. bursitis - inflames bursae

5. arthritis - joint inflammation

what is a sprain? what are the degrees?

overstretching of ligaments

• 1st degree - fibers are stretched

• 2nd degree - partial tear of ligament

• 3rd degree - rupture of ligament

what is a dislocation? what may happen? what joints are most vulnerable?

displacement of bones

• ligaments may be sprained (even torn) in severe cases

• blood vessels are often ruptures

• nerves may be compressed

• shoulder and knee joints are most vulnerable

what is subluxation and what is its etiology?

partial dislocation

• trauma, infection

what is bursitis and what is its etiology?

inflamed bursae

• trauma, infection

what is arthritis and what is its etiology?

joint inflammation

• trauma, infection, metabolic disorders, age

what are the structural limits to flexibility?

1. bony structure of joints (the way your bones sit on top of each other —> less bones = more flexible)

2. ligaments - limits range of motion

3. joint capsules - meant to provide stabilization (not a lot of movement)

4. muscle-tendon unit - muscle and its fascial sheaths

   1. the major focus of stretching exercises is the elongation of this tissue

name the elements that comprise the human body

• oxygen 65%

• carbon 18.5%

• hydrogen

• nitrogen

• calcium

• phosphorus

• potassium

• sulfur

• sodium

• chlorine

• magnesium

what are the main tissue types that the body is composed of?

• nervous

• epithelial (skin)

• muscle

• connective (very general term - ex. blood is one)

what are the three major structural components the body is made up on?

1. muscle

2. skeleton (bone)

3. fat

what factors do the distribution of the structural components of the human body depend on?

• sex

• genetic characteristics

• age

• lifestyle

what is the two-component model of body composition?

• the amount of fat and fat-free mass of which the body is composed

what are fat-free masses of the body primarily composed of?

• bone

• muscle

• water

• vital organs

• connective tissue

body mass = ?

fat mass + lean body mass

what is chemical composition of body (four component model)?

• fat

• fat free

  • protein

  • mineral

  • water

what is anthropometry? why do we do it? what does it compose of?

quantitative measurement of body size and proportions

• to understand human physical variation and body comp

  • skinfold thicknesses

  • circumferences

  • bony widths and lengths

  • height

  • body weight

why assess body composition?

• to monitor changes in body composition associated with growth, maturation, and aging

  • to distinguish normal from disease states

• to establish optimal ranges for health and performance of athletes in sports

• track goals for weight management or strength training

• important for health to know

  • association between obesity and chronic disease risk

  • very low levels of fat are also a risk

what are some complications associated with excessive thinness

• bone fractures

• muscle wasting

• reproductive disorders

what are some complications associated with obesity?

• stroke

• sleep apnea

• reduced fertility

• heart failure

what are eating disorders?

• a disturbance in eating behaviors that jeopardizes a person’s physical/psychological health

name some eating disorders

• anorexia nervosa

• bulimia nervosa

• binge eating disorder

• female athlete triad

  • composed of 3 things: - disordered eating, excessive exercise, emotional stress

what’s essential fat?

fat that is required for normal physiological functionning

• structural components of the cell membranes

• synthesis of certain hormones

• transport of fat-soluble vitamins

what’s storage fat?

fat that is stored in adipose tissue for energy supply purposes

• located underneath the skin (subcutaneous), in the abdominal cavity, and around certain organs (visceral fat)

• useable if not enough energy is available from other sources

what are the differences of fat between males and females?

the average male is taller, heavier, larger muscle mass = less total body fat content

ages 20-24

storage fat:

• female = 15%

• male = 12&

essential fat:

• female = 12%

• male = 3%

females have sex specific fat deposits in the breasts, pelvic and thigh regions

what are the fat deposition patterns?

location of excess storage fat is sex specific

male - android (apple

• upper torso

• abdomen

female - gynoid (pear)

• thighs

• hips

• buttocks

after menopause, females begin depositing more fat into abdominal area

characteristics of obesity

• BMI ≥ 30 (previously standard)

• body fat % ≥ 20% (males) or 30% (females)

• combination of type 2 diabetes and obesity is one of the largest epidemics the world has faced

• increasing around the world

characteristics of adult obesity

• number of canadians overweight/obese has been steadily increasing last 25 years

• over 60% of canadians are overweight/obese

  • overweight percentages increase every year

characteristics of childhood obesity in canada

• children are taller, heavier, bigger, and weaker than in 1981

• obese children at ages 6-9 have a 55% chance of becoming obese as adults

  • 10x the risk of normal children

• an obese child costs the health care system about 3x than a child of healthy weight

what are the causes of the obesity epidemic?

1. caloric intake exceeds caloric expenditure

2. decreased physical activity

   1. less need to walk to do daily errands, video games, etc.

3. increased consumption of calories

   1. processed foods

   2. high sugar intake (pop)

   3. “everythings bigger in texas” - larger portion sizes

4. social environment

   1. pressure to consume, influencers (mukbangs)

5. biology - epigenetics:

   1. changes in a chromosome that affect gene activity and expression

   2. any heritable phenotypic change that doesn’t involve genetic modification

      1. genetic makeup doesn’t cause obesity but lowers the threshold for its development

ex. insulin production decreases: poor regulation of blood sugar: diabetes: insulin rejection: weight gain

what are changes associated with aging in a prosperous, industrial society? how can they be slowed down?

• increased fat mass

• decreased muscle mass - sarcopenia

• decreased bone mass

can be slowed with regular exercise and proper dietary habits

what leads to skeletal fragility in elderly women?

failure to obtain an optimal level of bone mass during childhood

• requires proper nutrition, healthy body composition, and regular exercise

what are common direct and indirect techniques for assessing body composition?

direct

• chemical analysis of human cadaver

indirect

• noninvasive techniques used on living persons

what are the indirect methods for assessing body composition?

• height - weight tables

• body density & volume measurements

• weight - height indices

• waist circumference

• skinfold measurements

• CSEP - PATH Body Composition Assessment

• O-scale system

• bioelectric impendence analysis

what are height - weight tables? what are their criticisms?

desirable weight with regard to the lowest death rates predicted from tables

• developed by insurance actuaries

criticisms:

• dont take body comp into consideration

• data collected from white middle aged population

• no way to assess frame size accurately

what are body density and volume measurements?

density = mass/volume

body density varies with the amount of body fat

• greater proportion of fat -→ lower body density

methods of mesurement:

volumetry: measure the amount of air displaced

underwater weighting (hydrostation weighting)

• measure water displaced

  • not a good method because doesnt consider body comp (depends on age, race, sex, etc)

densitometry should not be used as a universal criterion for prediction of fat %

4 component model equations > 2 component model equations

weight - height indices? what does it not consider? criticms?

bmi - weight/height² (units: kg/m²)

used as an indicator of obesity

bmi:

less 18.5 = underweight

25-29.9 = overweight

30+ = obese

does not consider 

• body comp

• fat distribution

• amount of visceral fat

cut off points need revision because ethnicities differ relationships

• south asian and chinese ppl have more visceral fat than white ppl

criticms: does not diffrienciate body comp

• athletes tend to have bmis in the overweight range

what is waist circumference in terms of assessing body comp? with what other method is it used with to be more effective?

• inexpensive and effective way to assess central obesity

  • may be better than bmi

• used in conjunction with bmi to be more reliable (CSEP-PATH)

how to use skinfold measurements? what is rationale? assumptions about it? what are the 2 types of body comp prediction equations? what is measurment error %?

how? 2 ways:

• use sum of # of skinfolds as a indication of relative fatness among individuals

• use fat folds in conjunction with equations/tables to predict % body fat

assumptions when using:

• constant densities in 2 compartment level

• proper identification of site and proper technique

• constant compressibility of skinfold

• fixed adipose tissue pattern (can differ per hormones)

• fixed proportion of internal to external fat

basically just ideal methods and subjects

2 equations:

• population specific

  • developed from small homogenous samples - only can apply eqtn to that sample

• generalized sample

  • developed from large heterogeneous samples - wider application available

    • but be careful when using them on extreme cases of populations (obese ppl, atheletes)

measurement error % is 3-4%? no i think cuz o-scale is used to combat it)

why is o-scale system used? what does it require, provide? what scale does it use?

• used to combat skinfold measurement error

• requires 

  • 8 skin folds

  • 10 girths

  • 4 skinfold-corrected girths

  • 2 bone breadths

• provides

  • adiposity rating

  • proportional weigh rating

• uses stamina scale

how is bioelectrical impedance analysis used? how can results fluctuate in a subject? how can prediction equations be validated? what is error % fat estimation? how equations have errors in estimations?

• used to measure resistance to the flow of energy in body

• impedance is greater in adipose tissue than in bone + muscle

higher the impedance = the fatter the subject (because the subject is less conductive) (bcz theres less water in adipose tissue than muscle)

fluctuations in water content in subjects need to be standardized because they can affect the optimum results

validated using underwater weighting

equations tend to not estimate fat mass well.

need to use equations per populations

error %: approx. 3-5% on top of body density

what is the other procedure used in assessing body comp - new gold standard. what is it widely used to measure?

what are the other 2 common ones? what are their advantages?

dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)

• widely used to perform bone mineral density measurements

CT, MRI are also gold standards too

• advangtages: distinguish between subcutaneous vs visceral adipose tissue