Hist. 226 Exam II

Mexican Texas

Mexican Texas was short lived, from 1821-1835. Few people had all the slaves, any black individual in the area descended from a slave. Slavery was outlawed in 1824, but Tejanos found a loophole and simply referred to them as indentured servants. The war of Independence left the country a wreck. The frontier suffered as the interior was being put together, especially in the north. Tejanos were on their own and unsure as to how to set up a national government.

Agustin Iturbide

Helped Mexico achieve independence. He was a conservative Creole General in the Mexican army. He was later proclaimed emperor of Mexico because of his popularity until its collapse in 1824. He signed a permit allowing for Stephen F. Austin to create a colony. Iturbide had to deal with the rise of unemployment, Mexican debt, and a dissolved congress. Iturbide dissolved congress because he thought it would be easier if he took everything upon himself. He became a constitutional emperor on May 19, 1822 and was eventually disposed of by Santa Anna. On March 19, 1823, he abdicated the throne and tried to come back, but was executed

Mexican Constitution of 1824

Followed a similar template as that of the United States Constitution. It reflects French, Spanish, and American political thought. It indicates a separate executive, legislative, and judicial branch, as well as separate Vice President and President elections, bicameral congress, and the Catholic faith was the only religion permitted. It was to include a lower house representing the population and the senate representing the states equally. It created a free republican constitution for independent Mexico as well as a limited [federal] government with president elections every four years. This constitution granted the clergy and military their fueros, which is judicial autonomy that made them subject to only the legal structures of their respective institutions. Enough population makes a certain territory a state, whereas insufficient population remains a territory. Mexico does away with slavery and Texan leaders had slaves whom of which they intended to turn into indentured servants as a way to circumvent the Mexican slavery law. This creates a federalist republic with limited power for the president, democratic Texas was part of the state of Coahuila y Texas. It established state/country government with delegates in the main government. Texas is part of Coahuila y Texas.

Federalists

Some were professionals and local elites. Some were members of the lower clergy and junior military officers. They believed that provincial deputations had already established local rule and decentralized power would prevent the rise of new dictators.

Centralists

Constituted a hierarchy of the catholic church. A considerable portion of the army's command officers were centralists. Most of the business community was a centralist. They believed that Mexico lacked government experience and needed a strong central government.

Coahuila Y Tejas

This was a new Mexican state made up of Texas and the province of Coahuila. They were joined together so that they could have enough people to enter Mexico as a state rather than a territory. Texas had few citizens and didn't merit their representative. They had to share with Coahuila. Texas's delegate to the Imperial congress was Father Refugio de la Garza, which was a San Antonio parish priest and native of the town.

Empresarios

Colonization agents, whom contracts with the government to introduce families into Texas. These individuals had been granted the right to settle on land in exchange for recruiting new settlers. These are also referred to as, "entrepreneurs."

Empresario Stephen F. Austin

Referred as "Father of Texas," and came from a good family with a good education. He brought with him 297 families, whom are referred to as the "Old Three Hundred." The families agreed to convert to Catholicism, which they did not. They also failed to follow Mexican rules. Austin settled in San Felipe de Austin, which was the first Anglo-American town to be granted an ayuntamiento and the first to have a formal militia, so it was responsible for its own affairs. Austin went to Mexico City to complain about its treatment of Texas. He warned that Texas should be treated as a proper state or it would rise up and take matters into its own hands. Mexico saw that as a threat, so he was arrested in Saltillo, Mexico given that it seemed as if he was advocating for a revolt, which Texans tremendously disliked. Austin was the most significant empresario.

Empresario Green DeWitt:

DeWitt was the second most significant empresario. He was a former Missouri sheriff and was allowed to locate 400 families on the Guadalupe, which became the town of Gonzales, secondarily founded in 1827 (originally, it was established in 1825, but hostile natives attacked and burned down the town). The town was named Gonzalez after the governor of Coahuila y Tejas.

Empresario Martin DeLeon:

DeLeon was the only successful Mexican empresario. He granted between Austin and DeWitt's contracts. He crossed into Texas with 41 Mexican families and established Victoria, Texas. Despite occasional boundary disputes with DeWitt, DeLeon had a successful ranching community. DeLeon was the only Mexican empresario to set up a colony and was the captain of the army that killed many Native Americans. De Leon was the only colonizer to bring in mostly Mexican families. De Leon and DeWitt's colonists continuously bickered over colony boundaries because of De Leon's unspecified boundaries.

Slavery in Mexican Texas:

Few people had slaves, any black in the area descended from a slave, and in 1824, slavery was outlawed, but Tejanos/Anglos found a loophole in which they referred to their slaves as "indentured" servants.

Law of April 6, 1834:

Previously, Mexican policymakers decided it would be a good idea to have Americans settle in Texas to solve underdevelopment, but it didn't work. Texas residents agreed that Texas needed to be separated from Coahuila since Coahuila rarely paid attention to Texas needs. The Law of April 6, 1834 restricted American immigration into Texas, voided previous empresario contracts, article XI welcomed US immigration to the interior of Mexico, but not to Texas, and banned the importation of slaves. This was passed by the Mexican government, stopping immigration to Texas from the US, banning the importation of slaves, and voiding previous empresario contracts.

Manuel Mier y Teran:

Mier y Teran was a Mexican general, on an expedition to Texas to report Texan conditions. He was put in charge of the Eastern interior provinces and enforced the Law of April 6, 1830 after his report, which practically created it.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna:

Santa Anna was "elected" president of Mexico. He was president in name, alone given that he pushed command onto his vice president. His vice president was a radical Federalist who made changes to the government Santa Anna didn't disagree with. He took on emergency powers to strike them down. Santa Anna was a pretty good military strategist and was good at crushing his enemies. In May of 1935, he crushed the governor of Zacatecas. Zacatecas was not the only state that tried to revolt. Coahuila y Tejas' governor sheltered Zacatecas' governor, so they were punished for that, too. He was elected 11 times to the office of presidency. He was a good military strategist, struck down rebellion in Zacatecas in 1835, but was defeated at the Battle of San Jacinto. His vice president was Valentin Gomez Farias, which was a radical federalist and made significant changes to the government. Santa Anna reversed Valentin's actions through emergency powers. Santa Anna was originally a federalist whom did away with the constitution of 1824. When he emerged to power, he implemented centralist policies and caused much unrest and tension.

The Texas Revolt, 1835-36:

The Texas revolt occurred in response to the dictator, Santa Anna, the constitution granting them delegates and state governments was overthrown, emerging liberty and western expansion ideas. It was a rebellion in which Texas gained its independence from Mexico. The form of government was constantly changing, and the people were encouraged to rise up. Juan N. Seguin was the Paul Revere of the revolution. Texans compared themselves to American patriots, the first Texan flag was made out of Naomi DeWitt's wedding dress.

Sam Houston

United States politician and military leader who fought to gain independence for Texas from Mexico and to make it a part of the United States.

Houston was the first and third president of Texas and represented Texas in the US senate.

Winners and Losers in the Texas Revolt:

The Anglos gained everything, there was an accumulation of debt. Mexicans in Texas were treated horribly, as they were robbed and kicked out, regardless of their loyalties.

Era of the Republic of Texas:

The Republic of Texas had lots of debt from war and no one would loan them money as everyone was aware, they couldn't pay back. Houston printed too much money, making currency nearly worthless. The government was modeled after Jacksonian view, the age of the common man. Any persons could hold office, experience or not. Indians were unable to vote, which was a significant factor in rural areas, in contrast to the influence of this factor in big cities such as San Antonio. Texan counties acquired delegates. The Republic followed English common law and include rulings which hold true for the present. Some Spanish laws were kept, including those about property, inheritance, adoption, and lawsuit filing. Texas was underpopulated, had no money as they had no way of taxing settlers and had to choose between remaining in debt or joining the United States. Houston yearned for annexation whereas Lamar yearned for independence.

David Burnet:

Burnet was a New Jersey native. He received a contract to settle 300 families in East Texas before the revolution. He became the intern president of Texas. Burnet set national elections for September 1836 and included the question of annexation. Burnet wanted annexation so much so that he sent representatives to Washington DC before Houston took office. Burnet was an ad interim president of Texas who Santa Anna tried to capture. He obtained an empresario grant, but failed to acquire enough people, thus selling to Galveston Bay and Texas company. Burnet was very disliked, making many enemies, thus having a short presidency. The National Election of 1836 entailed the annexation's success, stalled by the US Congress, and naming Houston as president. Burnet sent representative to Washington before Houston took office. Burnet was an interim president of Texas.

Lorenzo De Zavala:

De Zavala was one of Mexico's most prominent statesmen. He received an empresario contract for 500 families. Despite this, he sided with the Texas Revolutionaries. He was a liberal politician with ties to East Texas and thought Texas needed a trained, regular, uninformed and disciplined army. He was elected vice president of the interim government of Texas. De Zavala was a Spanish leader in the Texan revolution, whom later became the vice-president of Texas interim government and was once the governor of Mexico. He obtained an empresario grant, but failed to acquire enough people, thus selling to Galveston Bay and Texas company (partners with Burnet?). De Zavala was allies with Santa Anna until he turned dictator, created the present-day flag, and was a liberal politician whom thought Texas was in need of a trained army.

Mirabeau B. Lamar:

Lamar succeeded Houston as president and wanted Texas to be a grand Republic. He was Houston's Vice President, but before that, he'd been a senator of the state of Georgia, failing to get into congress. He tried to be a major general in the Texas army, but wasn't good. Lamar was a hero of San Jacinto, thus winning the presidency. Lamar was a foil to Houston whom advocated for an ethnic cleansing of all the Native Americans, particularly of the Cherokee. He advocated for education, passing a land grant that set the stage for the development of public schools, including Texas A&M University (WHOOP!) and TU, five years later. Lamar began the Santa Fe expedition and yearned for an ethnic cleansing of all the Native Americans, especially the Cherokee. Lamar's Indian Policy entailed the force of Indians out of Texas, resulting in increased military spending and indebtedness. Lamar viewed Native Americans as threats or potential threats who did not honor treaties Indians had signed with former president Houston with rights to lands. Lamar moved the capital from Houston to Waterloo to spite Sam Houston, eventually renaming it Austin, the city where Austin died. Lamar drove Texas further into debt.

Chief Bowles/Duwali/Bowls:

Bowles, known as Duwali, was a Cherokee chief that supported the Fredonian rebellion until it started to fall apart, later withdrawing support. The Cherokees had been forcibly removed from the United States and had found themselves in Texas. Duwali had signed a treaty with Texas pledging loyalty to the independence movement, but Lamar didn't trust them. Lamar always believed that the natives were either hostile or potentially hostile, quoting, "The white man and the red man cannot dwell in harmony together, nature forbids it." The Texas policy stated, "Go elsewhere, or be exterminated." Bowles was a Cherokee leader and a friend of Sam Houston whom made a treaty for land in east Texas, which was not honored by Lamar. He was executed as he refused to leave Texas, ignoring Lamar.

Santa Fe Expedition:

Lamar enlisted three citizens to negotiate with Santa Fe to be incorporated into the Texas Republic, which was Mexican land, infuriating the Mexican government. Hugh McLead led the expedition, meaning to travel by the Red River and follow it west, but was turned around at the Witchita river, facing the Comanche and Kiowa natives. This is when they realized West Texas and the High Plains were not meant to be traveled through by loaded wagons. The expedition was a failure. In 1841, President Lamar yearned to exploit trade on the Santa Fe Trail for Texas and wanted lands to join Texas. Lamar sends merchants and military to Santa Fe, expecting the support of the Santa Fe people. These got lost near the Wichita river, lost supplies, and were prone to Indian attacks. The military met them outside of Santa Fe and the entire expedition was imprisoned in Mexico City. The leader of the expedition was Navarro, whom was blamed for all, though Lamar had forced him. This was a complete failure in which president Lamar made an effort to reap benefits of the trade route that liked Missouri with the town of Santa Fe in present-day Mexico. Three-hundred individuals were sent out, ending up captured, and marching to Mexico as prisoners.

Jose Antonio Navarro:

Navarro was a ranch owner and revolutionary-minded Tejano. He represented the Mexican Texas population and tried to establish the government. He was a skilled politician and merchant, so Lamar forced him to go on the Santa Fe expedition. When it failed, he was blamed for it. Navarro was a Mexican American who signed the Texas Declaration of Independence. Navarro supported Lamar, represented Mexican Americans, and was blamed for the Santa Fe expedition.

Mier Expedition:

Mexican government constantly attacked Texas, as they refused to allow the loss of Texas. Houston sent Brigadier General Alexander Somervall to fight them off. Somervall seized Laredo as the citizens remained loyal to Mexico. When he succeeded, he wanted to disband his group. Many volunteers refused to, so they kept going and occupied the village of Mier, demanding supplies. The Mexican military showed up, fought on Christmas day of 1842, terminating with a victory. It was a desperate win to reclaim Texas and was a huge blow to Houston. Black bean method resulted in 17 deaths. This expedition ended in death or capture of Texans who crossed into Mexico. Houston sent men to defend against Mexico with Fisher leading. Some group members realized that they could keep whatever they plundered, so they defied orders and attacked deeper into Mexico, attacking Mier, holding the mayor hostage, and were captured by the Mexican army. Those who tried to escape were executed using the black bean drawing method. This win allowed Mexico to take steps toward getting Texas back and made Lamar aware that Texas expansion wasn't going to happen. This was the last of the raiding expeditions from Texas into the area south of the Nueces River during the days of the Republic. It began when members of the Somervell expedition refused to leave the area, moved down the Rio Grande to a campsite, and selected William S. Fisher as their commander. These yearned revenge, retaliation, and adventure. The leaders were opponents of Sam Houston whom spotted a town of Mier and requested goods from the town, taking alcaldes as hostage. The Mexican general, Woll, prevented delivery of supplies so the Texas army attacked and killed 600 of them. The men were eventually captured and every tenth one was shot, using the Black Bean method.

Juan N. Seguin:

Tejano Soldier, Mayor, Ranchero: Seguin was idolized as the Paul Revere of the Texas Revolution. He was the mayor of San Antonio from 1840-1842. The Tejanos in San Antonio managed better than their counterparts. Seguin was an influential figure and a hero for both Tejanos and Anglos. But, because he had connections in Mexico, people began to lose trust in him. The Anglos began to threaten him and his family. He resigned as mayor in April, running off to Mexico, where Santa Anna makes him fight for Mexico, against Texas. Eventually, he returns to Texas, old and embittered. He is remembered as a deserter, rather than a hero.

Agrarian Texas:

The ranchers, recognized as slaves, produced the economic activities. There were no institutions and any that did exist were Catholic or protestant, not public. Cotton was claimed to value. Most Texans were farmers or ranchers. The whites, Anglos or Europeans, were over slaves, then there were Tejanos, whom did not own slaves. This was a time with white domination over black slavery. Whites consisted of various groups, including Anglos and Europeans, mainly Germans. Southern and western Texas had large numbers of Tejanos. This territory was still a Tejano homeland.

Class System in Agrarian Texas:

Planter Class [Dominant]

Women [Second Class]

Merchant Class

Yeoman Farmers

Landless Whites

Slaves [30% of Population]

Texan Economy:

The Texan economy was based on cotton, corn, and livestock with limited industries, trade, and commerce.

Planter Class:

The planter class entailed a small part of the population with lots of slaves. They acquired political, social, and economic domination. Planters' cotton economy was based on slavery. Cotton continually expanding into new lands. The use of small ports along the Gulf Coast of state were used to export cotton

The Merchant Class:

The merchant class was small but elite and rich. These acquired shipments from overseas, hauling them on carts to mining countries to sell for silver. This was a risky endeavor as robbery and Indian attacks were prevalent.

Yeoman Farmers:

The yeoman farmers participated in local markets alongside slave owners. These were small, independent farms with no slave workers. These were poor as they lacked markets.

Tejano Ranchers:

Tejanos were largely ranchers. Markets for livestock were in New Orleans and Mexico. Some exports through the Gulf ports led to Cuba and elsewhere. Others worked as vaqueros, cart-men, merchants, and laborers, whereas very few were office holders. Some Mexican trade occurred in Matamoros and Brownsville.

Merchants:

This is a time for the rise of the well-to-do merchant class in larger towns and cities. Only four or five towns had any brick buildings.

Persistence of Planter Ethos:

Patriarchy is prevalent, white women are in a second-class status, no one group opposed planters.

Slaves in Texas:

Since Texan land was ideal for cotton, Texans agreed that slaves were the ideal workforce. Slaves increased rapidly in the republic and arrived with their masters, having a restricted and difficult life. The Republic of Texas dished out some of the harshest punishments for smallest things. Slaves could not look at a person suspiciously or they'd risk death. Free blacks fared little better. Lots of legal codes that applied to the slaves applied to the free as well. As of 1836, freedmen had to have special permission to live in the republic. As of 1840, Congress passed a law banning the immigration of free blacks to Texas and freedmen had to leave Texas within the next 2 years or risk being recaptured as slaves. They had no rights. These were mostly owned by the planter class. There was a large population growth through children and input from African slave trade. Freemen had no rights and had to leave Texas in two years, or else risking facing slavery once again.

Tejano Economic Society:

Rancheros

Cart Men/Teamsters

Skilled Artisans

Cowboys

Laborers

Rancheros:

Rancheros, recognized as Tejanos were mostly ranchers, not planters. These sold animals to Texan Anglos and the United States.

Cart Men:

Carts could transport two tons of material and were pulled by 4-6 oxen. These were more successful at transportation than the Anglos.

European Immigrants to Texas:

Germans, Irish, Czechs, Polish, Mexicans: Germans were the largest immigration group until 1910 and most important. Many were brought by Henry Fisher and Burchard Miller. They became known as the "forty-eighters," because they came after a failed German revolution in 1848. Most traveled to Hill County and to older settlements. Half were Catholic whereas the other half was Lutheran. Few were Jews or agnostic/atheist. They maintained their culture until WWI. The Irish settled below Victoria, near Corpus Christi in refugios like San Patricio, founded by Thomas O'Conner. Their colonies were known as refugios. Immigrants kept practicing their cultural beliefs because no one prevented them from doing so. The Czechs were poor immigrants whom settled mainly in Fayette. Their culture was very family oriented, Catholic, and land focused. The Polish fled from wars and revolutions, were tenant farmers, hard workers, and artisans, whom were isolated for a while due to language barriers. The oldest Polish settlement is Panna Maria, Texas.

Prince Carl Von Solms-Braunfels:

Prince Car was regarded as, "bougie." He tried to establish Indianola, originally referred to as Karlshafen. The first colonists arrived before he finished preparing and instead established New Braunfels in 1845. Prince Carl was the first agent for the German Emigration Company.

Henri Castro:

Castro was a Portuguese Jew from France and a banker. He settled Catholic families in Castroville. Castro brought hardworking Germans and skilled artisans from Lorraine. He hired Mexicans to teach his colony how to raise cattle, grow food, and animal defense.

Tomas O'Connor:

O'Connor was one of the wealthiest Texans prior to the Civil War and was known for his leadership as an empresario with Irish settlers. O'Connor fought the Karankawa Indians. O'Connor and his wife combined resources provided for the start of his ranch.

Tejano Society: Marriage, Remarriage, Adoptions:

Marriage in Texas included roles in which the woman was to stay home, take care of ranch, and of business. Remarrying when widowed was acceptable, and children were encouraged and needed, condemning abortion, as they were Catholic. Formal adoptions were very simple and preceded in court. Informal adoption occurred as a writing declaring that such family has raised a child and made the child a lawful heir. If a will is not written, the state is to decide the disbursement of the land. The Spanish saw it as commercially helpful because the adopted child was capable of working for an individual and could inherit. Mexicans adopted due to societal factors including death of family members. Orphanages were unheard of.

Oblates Missionaries (OMI), Ursuline Sisters:

The Oblates Mary Immaculate came to Galveston. These were a missionary order that came from France and landed in Texas around 1849, where they landed in San Antonio and the lower valley, establishing schools that soon became colleges. Maryanists founded St. Mary's University first as a high school, later as a college. They set up towns where the townspeople supported their efforts and in rural areas, they founded chapels. Oblates traveled by horseback and buggies, ministering to thousands of Catholics, and teaching incoming immigrants the English language. Ursuline were nuns that established high schools whom arrived after the Oblates. They were originally from France and went from France to Canada, Canada to Louisiana, Louisiana to Galveston, Galveston to Brownsville, then Brownsville to the rest of Texas.

Ursuline Sisters:

The Ursuline sisters were a group of nuns that went to Canada, through the US, and through Texas. These were the first group of Catholic teachers in North America. They set up Ursuline academies in Galveston, SA, and Dallas.

Vicigods:

These were of Germanic culture, occupied north of Spain, withheld partible inheritance upon the death of one spouse in which half of the property goes to remaining spouse and the other half is distributed evenly to lawful children. This idea was adopted by the Spanish

Austin College:

Austin college was the first high school in Texas, which was first located in Huntsville, relocated to Sherman, Texas and was founded by the Presbyterians.

Baylor:

Baylor university was founded by the Baptists in the 1850s. The Baptists also founded an orphanage.

Melinda Rankin:

Rankin was an author recognized for her missionary work books. She was a protestant minister whom was unsuccessful as she told Catholics their beliefs were wrong, and that the pope was bad. She founded schools for Mexicans.

Annexation of Texas, Manifest Destiny:

Texas yearned to join the US sooner, but the fact that Texas was a slave state was an issue. Texas was never a territory. Polk helped spur the Mexican war as he wanted more land in order for the United States to go from "sea to sea," hence manifest destiny. Annexation took very long to finally approve. Houston moved cautiously, knowing the previous failures. This stance partially manipulated the US with threatful negotiations with Britain and France. Britain convinced Mexico to recognize Texas if they did not annex. Texas needed US to be ready to support Texas against Mexico if annexation news started a war. Annexation was overwhelmingly approved in Texas when the time came after one failed document to congress, and a change of US presidency. Lamar supported manifest destiny.

War with Mexico, 1846-48:

The United States brings troops to the Mexican border after annexation. It was a short war in which the United States captures Mexico City and forces the signing of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Zachary Taylor instigated the Mexican attack so that he could declare war which took a while to formally end given that there was no obvious Mexican government to sign a treaty with.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo:

The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican War and granted the US control of Texas, New Mexico, and California in exchange for $15M. People in newly annexed territory now become American citizens. The people acquire property rights and protection from Indians and the southern boundary of Texas becomes the Rio Grande. This includes Mexican cession, in which commissioners agreed that the boundaries would be the Rio Grande, Mexicans and anybody else in the new US territory would have one year to choose which country they'd like to be a citizen. A mere .99% of individuals remained in the land. This treaty offers protection of property, though the meaning is unclear. Its most significant articles concern the creaton of international border at rio Grande, rights of Mexicans and others in the newly annexed territories. The treaty created the Mexican American people as the border moved southward. The US paid Mexico fo the loss of its lands.

Land Grant Adjudication in Texas:

Adjudication is the legal process of making a formal judgment or decision about a problem or disputed matter. The United States allowed Texas to handle its own adjudication. There were 365 pieces of land in Nueces Valley area and three peoples in council were in charge of receiving claims, where all but 20 grants were claimed. Nearly all grants adjudicated, nearly all approved. Confirmation of the title settles the issue.

Federal vs. State Adjudication

determine the validity of land titles to grants made by Spain and Mexico. All jurisdictions in the Southwest have federal adjudication, except Texas.

Peter H. Bell:

Bell was a Texas governor who pushed for a quick adjudication and asked for the three persons council to be formed.

Bourland-Miller Commission:

Land grant adjudication, rejected very few. confirmed about 209. A ship full of many of these documents sank and he had to do it over again.

Separists/Territorialists in Lower Valley:

Those in the lower valley wanted to separate from Texas because their concerns were not similar to those of the rest of Texas

Texas as a Southern State:

Texas as a southern state revolved more and more around cotton. Slaves became 1/3 of the population with huge cotton production increase. Although most Texans didn't own any slaves, those who did had no more than four. This is because of huge plantations. Texas' identity was slave-based whose conditions varied depending on the master and these had limited protection against cruel treatment.

Southern Political Ethos:

Men were in charge, the patriarchy ruled. Women were second class and white men ruled most of the government, so there was no formal opposition to slavery.

Frederick Olmstead:

Olmstead was a landscape architect who drew the plan for central park. Olmstead travelled through Texas and saw little development and wrote bad books about his travels. Only five towns had brick buildings in Texas. He was antislavery.

Mexican Trade, Official/Unofficial Ports:

Mexico had silver, cotton was the main item as sold in New Orleans and led to the creation of city National Bank of New York. Veracruz was the main port, but it was near Mexico City, so was pointless during the war. The port of Matamoros (island near Brownsville) and Brazos were used instead.

Causes of the Civil War:

Economic and social differences between the states, states v. federal rights, slaves v. non-slave proponents, and Lincoln's presidency were factors that spurred the Civil War. Henry Clay, the Great Compromiser, helped to delay its coming but to no avail. The majority of Texans voted for secession, but many Germans did not. Tejanos fought for Confederacy, with others joining the Union forces. A second contribution was the confederate cotton trade through Mexico, particularly ports of Matamoros and Bagdad. The rise of the confederate cotton agents, including Charles Stillman, Jose San Roman, John McAllen, and others. The national victory reconfigures the relationship of the south to the union. A rise in national power to the detriment of state rights (10th Amendment). This is a perennial element in the conflict between state power and federal power.

Texas in the Confederacy:

Texas contributes manpower and trained officers as well as cotton to the confederate trade. Tejanos side with the confederacy as they had more connections to the southern state government and its leaders. Tejanos didn't own slaves so they didn't have much of a connection to the confederate cause and some Tejanos fought for the Union. Texas contributes outstanding officers and thousands of fighting men. There are few significant battles given that most of the fighting is east of the Mississippi. Texas largely unscathed by physical destruction of war.

Albert Sydney Johnston:

Johnson was a veteran of the Texas Revolution and the US Mexican War. He assumed command of the Western department of the Confederacy and died at the battle of Shiloh of 1862. Johnston was colonel of the first Texas Rifle volunteers during the Mexican War, was the general during the Civil War, and commanded western confederacy, but died in Shiloh in 1862.

The Confederate Cotton Trade, Matamoros, Bagdad:

This was an illegal cotton trade with both the US and Europe that helped keep the south alive during the war. The ports were Matamoros and Bagdad. Merchants used this to sell cotton in cuva and New England in exchange for silver/gold then stored it in London and Spain. After the war was over, they bought several land masses.

Col. Rip John S. Ford:

Ford was a doctor, a Texas military officer, state senator, Texas ranger, and a newspaper editor. He was an officer in the lower valley, wrote to the families of dead soldiers, hence the RIP in his name. He was a confederate colonel and commanded forces in the last engagement in the Civil War (Battle of Palmito Ranch) and helped write the constitution.

Col. Santos Benavides:

Benavides was the highest-ranking Tejano in the Confederate Army. He led efforts to protect the Texas-Mexican border from union guerillas and Juan Cortina. His family was the first ranching family in South Texas, he was also a politician. Benavides was a key officer in the Lower valley, the highest-ranking Tejano in the confederate army, protected Texas from the union, and only knew Spanish.

Charles Stillman:

Stillman was a brilliant merchant who made lots of money and was considered the Father of Brownsville. He joined Mifflin Kennedy/Richard King in the transport company, hauling American troops up the river and supplying them. He commenced a company to sell lots for as much as $1.5K, each named after Brownsville, and he was a northerner who sympathized with the south. Acquired massive ranches after buying land post-civil war. Stillman was a confederate cotton agent, had a partner in New York to help fight the blockade, his father was a merchant in Connecticut, and he went with shipments to Matamoros' port. He sold goods in the mining country and got rich, founded Brownsville, Texas after taking it from the Godina family, leaves valley and dies in New York.

Jose Morrel:

Morrel was a Spaniard and partner of Stillman, who helped Stillman buy and sell cotton for gold. Acquired massive ranches after buying land post-civil war. Morrell was involved with contraband, helped Stillman buy cotton.

Jose San Roman:

A Spaniard from New Orleans who moved to Brownsville and had lots of connections to the merchant class, deep in the mining country. He was a confederate cotton agent, merchant, huge in Atlantic trade (NOT cotton trade), millionaire, from Spain living in Mexico and had a steamboat. He was the most important broker and worked in New Orleans, then in Matamoros.

Richard King:

King was a famous rancher, hence King Ranch and was prevalent in the confederate cotton trade. He helped ferry army supplies to US army during Mexican-American war and later founded a company with Kennedy that took control of the Rio Grande. Acquired massive ranches after buying land post-civil war. King was a jeweler's apprentice, super power, joined Kennedy's steamboat company, married daughter and protestant minister, and his ranch is a worldwide corporation today.

Mifflin Kennedy:

Kennedy was a famous ranger, in the confederate cotton trade, and traded with merchants including San roman and Stillman. Acquired massive ranches after buying land post-civil war. He was a catholic from California who originally settled in Maryland, has a steamboat which he used to charge government for transporting soldiers. He had an idea to join with the other merchants and make a steamboat company. He married a Mexican lady who had children, then he had children with her too.

Francisco Yturria:

An important merchant that initially worked for Stillman, who later became a private banker. Spanish/Tejano, important merchant, worked for himn in Atlantic trade before setting off on his own business ventures (banker), and was involved with contraband.

Felix Von Blucher, Maria Von Blucher:

Von Bluchers were early German settlers. Maria left behind intricate letters that provided a first-hand account of the Civil War and its effects on the settler's living conditions in Texas. Maria wrote letters to her mother in Germany which provided good historical data on civil war Texas regarding their bad living situation, money plea, eating only wild game every day, plea for canned goods, and effects of war. Felix built fortifications for the confederacy.

Conflict Between Mexicans and Anglos in Texas:

Like roommates, Anglos disliked all the noise, parties, and drinking that occurred. If the area was to succeed financially and grow, it was important to work together. This caused the Cart War, Salt War, and an issue with Juan Cortina. Despite the Tejanos' rights to citizenship, the Anglos directed violence toward them. Manifestations, the Cart war, Cortina's rebellion, and the Salt War serve as indicators.

Cart War of 1857:

Mexican carts were continually attacked by Anglos since they resented each other given that the Mexicans took up all contracts that the Anglos sought. Mexicans could move cargo by oxen carts cheaper than the Anglos who moved cargo with other, more expensive methods. The anglos were upset and began destroying Mexican carts, stealing cargo, and sometimes maiming/killing Mexicans. Anglo criminals were not punished by law.

Salt War of 1877:

A war emerged after Austin demanded Tejanos to pay for salt from the lakes in El Paso Valley. This was fought over salt deposits in lakes near El Paso. Two groups fought over the deposit, Albert Fountain/Louis Cardis were anti-salt ring and wanted the salt to be owned by the San Elizario community whereas WW Mills promoted the salt ring, wanting individual ownership of the salt lakes. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo gave community the power over the salt. People are now forced to pay fees to mine the salt given that the lands in which the salt resides is private.

Juan Cortina, 1859:

The US army pursued him because he defended a vaquero in a fight and shot a Texas lawman, Marshall. He fought for Mexicans’ rights, and the poorer Mexicans especially liked him. The 1859 raid of Brownsville and continued conflict with Anglos in Texas: Cortina led a group of Mexicans to raid the city of Brownsville, killing multiple people. After this, he fled to a family ranch, then to Mexico, where he kept causing issues for Anglos in Texas, wrote a big paper about the wrongs done to Texan Mexicans, and served as a problem for Texan Rangers. Desperado; shot sheriff in the arm for assaulting an older cowboy, this causes many years of back and forth wars in the valley between Cortina and the law, local troops couldn't get him, people began evacuating the valley. US army pushes him into Mexico, comes back later, shoots up Brownsville saying the Mexicans are having their land stolen from them, goes back to Mexico, caught in 1876, dies under house arrest in the 90's; news reached all the way to London and was known for going up against the law. Seen as either a hero or frontier opportunist. He continued conflict with Anglos in Texas.