OpenStax Psychology 2e Chapter 8

Memory

set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time

Encoding

input of information into the memory system

Automatic processing

encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words

Effortful processing

encoding of information that takes effort and attention

Semantic encoding

input of words and their meaning

Visual encoding

input of images

Acoustic encoding

input of sounds, words, and music

Self-reference effect

tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance

Storage

creation of a permanent record of information

Sensory Memory

storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes

Short-Term Memory (STM)

holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used

Rehearsal

repetition of information to be remembered

Long-term memory (LTM)

continuous storage of information

Explicit memory

memories we consciously try to remember and recall

Episodic memory

type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory

Semantic memory

type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts

Implicit memory

memories that are not part of our consciousness

Procedural memory

type of long-term memory for making skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, and how to swim

Retrieval

act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness

Recall

accessing information without cues

Recognition

identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue

Relearning

learning information that was previously learned

Equipotentiality hypothesis

some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories

Amygdala

structure in the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories

Hippocampus

structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory

Cerebellum

hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory

Prefrontal cortex

area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning

Arousal theory

strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories

Flashbulb memory

exceptionally clear recollection of an important event

Amnesia

loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma

Anterograde Amnesia

loss of memory for events that occur after the brain trauma

Retrograde Amnesia

loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma

Reconstruction

process of bringing up old memories that might be distorted by new information

Suggestibility

effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories

Misinformation effect paradigm

after exposure to additional and possibly inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event

False memory syndrome

recall of false autobiographical memories

Forgetting

loss of information from long-term memory

Transience

memory error in which unused memories fade with the passage of time

Absentmindedness

lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else

Misattribution

memory error in which you confuse the source of your information

Bias

how feelings and view of the world distort memory of past events

Persistence

failure of the memory system that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones

Proactive interference

old information hinders the recall of newly learned information

Retroactive interference

information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information

Chunking

organizing information into manageable bits or chunks

Elaborative rehearsal

thinking about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory

Mnemonic device

memory aids that help organize information for encoding

Elaborative rehearsal

thinking about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory

Levels of processing

information that is thought of more deeply becomes more meaningful and thus better committed to memory

Self-reference effect

tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance

Engram

physical trace of memory

Memory-Enhancing Strategy

techniques to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory