Unit 3 Exam Study Guide

A comprehensive set of flashcards to help review key concepts around memory and learning for the upcoming exam.

Memory

The mental process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Three-stage model of memory

A model proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin outlining sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

Holds information for a fraction of a second to a few seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Holds information for about 20–30 seconds without rehearsal.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Stores information indefinitely, potentially for a lifetime.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory, lasting about 250–500 milliseconds.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory, lasting about 3–4 seconds.

Maintenance Rehearsal

A process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about information to maintain it in short-term memory.

Seven plus or minus two

George Miller’s theory suggesting that short-term memory can typically hold 5 to 9 items.

Chunking

Grouping related pieces of information together to improve memory capacity.

Elaborative rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge to improve memory encoding.

Self-referencing

Relating information to personal experiences to improve memory retention.

Mnemonic Device

Techniques like acronyms, rhymes, or visual imagery used to enhance memory.

Deep Processing

Focusing on meaning rather than surface details to improve memory.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall of facts and experiences.

Episodic Memory

Personal experiences and events.

Semantic Memory

General knowledge, facts, and concepts.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory affecting behavior.

Procedural Memory

Memory for skills and habits.

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences a response to another stimulus.

Cultural Differences in Memory

Individualistic cultures emphasize personal experiences while collectivist cultures focus on group events.

Clustering

Organizing information into related groups during recall.

Semantic Network Theory

Suggests that memory consists of interconnected concepts in a web-like structure.

Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon

Temporary inability to retrieve a word or fact despite feeling it is just out of reach.

Recall

Retrieving information without cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information from a set of options.

Relearning

Measuring how much faster information is learned a second time.

Serial Position Effect

Items at the beginning and end of a list are more easily remembered than those in the middle.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of items at the beginning of a list due to greater rehearsal and encoding into long-term memory.

Recency Effect

Better recall of the most recent items still in short-term memory.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Retrieval is more effective when conditions at recall match conditions at encoding.

Context-Dependent Memory

Studying in the same location where the test will be taken can enhance recall.

State-Dependent Memory

Being in the same physical or emotional state during study and test-taking can aid retrieval.

Mood Congruence

Emotional states can influence memory recall.

Flashbulb Memories

Highly vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information.

Decay Theory

Memory traces fade over time if they are not accessed.

Interference Theory

Other memories compete with the retrieval of information.

Proactive Interference

Older memories disrupt new learning.

Retroactive Interference

New learning interferes with the recall of old information.

Retrieval Failure

Information is stored but cannot be accessed without the right cues.

Motivated Forgetting

Active suppression or repression of unpleasant or anxiety-inducing memories.

Misinformation Effect

Post-event information can distort memory recollection.

Source Confusion

Memory can be attributed to the wrong source.

False Memories

Recollections of events that never actually occurred or are significantly altered from reality.

Lost in the Mall Technique

An experimental method used to study false memories involving a fabricated childhood story.

Eyewitness Testimony

Highly unreliable due to factors such as memory distortion and suggestibility.

Amnesia

Significant loss of memory due to brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall past memories before brain damage.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories after damage.

Hippocampus

Crucial for encoding new declarative memories.

Alzheimer's Disease (AD)

Progressive disease that deteriorates memory and cognitive functions.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A key mechanism behind memory trace formation involving synaptic strengthening.

Synaptic Plasticity

The ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time.

Hebb’s Rule

Neurons that fire together wire together, leading to stronger connections.

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of the environment formed through learning.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through associations between stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences—rewards and punishments.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the UCS.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

The weakening of a learned response when the CS is presented without the UCS.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of rest.

Little Albert Experiment

Watson's experiment showing emotional responses can be classically conditioned.

Taste Aversion

Quick learning to avoid foods associated with illness, potentially after just one exposure.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Learning by seeing others being rewarded or punished.

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the full behavior is achieved.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Different rates and timing at which reinforcements are given.

Continuous Reinforcement

Rewarding a behavior every time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcement only sometimes given, making behavior more resistant to extinction.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a random number of responses.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after a set amount of time has passed.

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after random time intervals.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others rather than through direct experience.

Cognitive Processes in Learning

Involves attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation during observational learning.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Bandura's study demonstrating children imitating violent behavior observed in adults.

Learned Helplessness

A condition in which an individual learns to feel helpless after repeated failures.

Modeling

The process of learning behaviors by observing and imitating others.

Application of Learning Theories

Understanding of human psychology, including motivation and resilience.