Lancashire witch-hunt, 1604-1613

How long after the gunpowder plot were the Pendle witch trials?

7 years

What was the mood of the country at the time?

Anti-Catholic hysteria and suspicion of dangers from within under James 1

What were the witches rumoured to have been plotting to do?

Blow up Lancaster Castle with gunpowder

Who wrote the primary source on the Pendle witch trials?

Thomas Potts, clerk of the court

The Wonderful Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster, 1613

Who did he dedicate his work to?

Thomas Knyvet, apprehended Guy Fawkes in the cellar of Parliament

What 3 similarities did Pendle have with other trials?

Feud between neighbours and rival families were central to the trials

Interrogations and trials were questionably legitimate

Evidence of Devil Pacts were sought in all cases

What was groundbreaking about Pendle?

Use of child witnesses, e.g. 1612 trials, Jennet Device 9yrs old gave evidence against 10 people - including her whole family

What did Thomas Pott’s Wonderful Discovery of Witches book go on to feature in?

1618, The Country Justice (handbooks for JPs) - covered all types of crimes, inc. witchcraft as a serious crim - mirrored Daemonologie, 1597

How did this impact future witch trials?

Popular due to wide range of examples and precedents to refer to - 20 editions before 1746

Allowed child testimonies due to Pendle

Book used in Salem, 1692

How significant were religious tension in Pendle before the witch hunt?

Didn’t suffer hugely due to the reformation, refuge for recusant Catholics

What two issues did Christopher Nuttall get criticized for?

Minister of Pendle, married couple in alehouse and married couple without license in 1592

Similar to John Horrocks (curate of Pendle Newchurch), reputation for immoral behaviours

What happened to the two Catholics found hiding in Henry Standens house?

1611, not acted upon despite not attending parish church

1626, Richard Moore charged for blasphemy

What crime were older witches charged with?

Using spells based on corrupted versions of old Catholic prayers

How does is show a lack of religious knowledge amongst the population of Pendle?

Protestant Reformation had limited impact as Catholic scripture was still used, especially amongst key individuals accused of witchcraft

What was the ecclesiastical status of Newchurch in Pendle?

Dependent chapelry in Whalley parish - served by chapel rather than larger parish church

How large was the parish?

180 square miles, population was 10,000

What has this lead some historians to argue?

It was too large to effectively manage the population and upon it closing Pendle Forest lost a resource - lacked the land, income from rent and unable to upkeep the chapels

Why had the anti-Catholic puritan gentry increased significantly in power by 17^th Century?

The abbey and its lands became property of the Crown so landed gentry were able to wield more influence - local gentry too power of the estate

Who did George Moore credit with ending a case of demonic possession in 1600?

A Discourse Concerning the Possession and Dispossession of 7 Persons of one Family in Lancashire, 1600 - explained that Puritan minsters ended the hunt

What evidence is there that white magic was a relatively normal part of Lancashire life?

Lancashire Quarter Sessions (local court that met 4x yearly and dealt with cases beyond JPs), found 100 cases of witchcraft in ordinary life

What new idea about witchcraft was introduced that changed its significance?

Involvement in both white magic and maleficium

Who normally made accusations of witch craft under the English system?

Members of the local community

How did this differ to the continental one?

They required clergy or professional inquisitors

What specific crime had witches been accused of for hundreds of years?

Maleficium

What did the witchcraft act of 1604 change about accusations of this crime?

After 1604 statue English courts no longer required tangible evidence - e.g. death or injury, and the cases were dealt with in a different way

Conjuring spirits was a capital offence

What was probably the catalyst for introducing this legislation?

Accession of James VI/I in 1603 - promoted continental view, pact with the Devil was a threat to social order

What was the economy of Pendle?

Early 1600s, it was a pastoral economy and had limited arable farming (focus on livestock)

Colne held cattle markets 3x a year

What do the probate inventories demonstrate?

70% houses contained tools required for cloth production - due to agricultural revenue being unpredictable, e.g. Old Chattox (Anne Whittle) carded wool for James Robinson in 1606

What is the link between cattle and witchcraft?

Important to the economy, could be sold for £3 at market

Old Chattox bewitched Hugh Moore’s cattle and Anthony Nutter’s cow

What was the impact of Crown ownership on inflation?

1507, fixed rents and entry fines were introduced - rents increased by 39%

Copyholders (tenants who gained privileges) benefitted from increase in profits and increase of enclosure led to threat of eviction

What was the impact of population growth?

1443 - 24 tenants

1527 - 100 tenants (population around 400), 1650 - population was 1,620

1546 and 1598, new corn mills constructed

1544, Newchurch church was consecrated

Who did the copyholders come to blows with in 1607?

Duchy of Lancaster, questioned validity of estates as hoped to gain money - petitioned against duchy in 1608, increasing economic tensions

1609, agreement to pay 12 years rent to confirm rights - forced to sell/mortgage the land

What is the link between subtenants, squatters and witches?

Subtenants paid 25x higher rent than copyholders and only had year or less contracts, e.g. Anne Redferne was a tenant of Robert Nutter

Illegal squatting was common as it was lucrative for landlords, exposed to economic difficulties

Who made the initial accusation of Alizon Device?

John Law, pedlar from Halifax

What had she asked of him?

Begged him for pins whilst on the road between Pendle Forest and Colne

How did she punish his refusal?

Paralysed him down one side and he was unable to speak

What medical explanation is there for this?

Probably a stroke

What other sign of witchcraft did he see?

Encountered her familiar in the shape of a black dog and Alizon appeared to him

What had Alizon instructed her familiar to do?

To harm Law and was surprised that the curse worked immediately - due to being novice to witchcraft

What were the two versions of the story told to the court?

- she begged Law for pins and he refused then became ill

- Abraham told that his father gave her pins despite her not having the money to pay

How did Abraham Law inflame the situation?

29th March, went in search of Alizon and she begged him for forgiveness - Abraham reported to a local magistrate, Roger Nowell

Snowballed - end of April, 19 people awaiting trial at Lancaster Castle

Why did the families of Old Demdike and Old Chattox fall out?

1601, theft of clothing and grain worth 20 shillings from Alizon Device

How did John Device settle the situation?

Promised to pay a yearly tribute of grain, settled situation until death a few years later

What did Potts observe about the relationship between the two witches?

They were opposites and envious of each other

What did Robert Nutter accuse Old Chattox of?

Bewitching him and causing him to become unwell

How were the two families connected?

Chattox and her family were tenants on the Nutter’s land, had various incidents of bewitching and threats of removal

What two events lead to John Nutter believing in witchcraft and suspecting old Chattox?

Robert being bewitched by Chattox and Christopher (father) insisted on his deathbed that he had been bewitched

Describe an earlier case of witchcraft from Lancashire.

1546, William Walker was accused by James Standisshe of using magic to convey a silver spoon to Wigan

1594, Edmund Hartlay was a faith healer who was accused when 2 children he was caring for fell ill - demonic possession recorded by John Darrell and George More

What position did Nowell hold?

JP and local landowner/local magistrate, central to compiling case and conducting the hunt

1612, High Sheriff of Lancashire

What were his political and religious connections?

Strong connections with high-profile Protestants - related to Dean of St Paul’s Cathedral and Bishop of Exeter

What book may have influenced his opinons on witchcraft?

William Perkins, Discourse of the Damned Art of Witches (1608) - promoted Devil’s Pacts and Daemonologie

What about Nowell’s background may have encouraged him to hunt witches?

Related to Nicholas Starkie who led family that experienced possession and was convinced to take action due to succession of witnesses before him

Who interrogated Alizon Device?

Roger Nowell, after being called to Colne by Abraham on 21st March

What methods of interrogation were used?

Sleep deprivation, pricking, watching, etc.

How was Alizon initiated into witchcraft?

Old Demdike (grandmother) persuaded her to take a familiar one day when they were begging, promised anything if she allows the familiar to suckle her

What was Alizon’s familiar?

Black dog

What did Alizon accuse Old Demdike of doing to:

-John Nutter’s cow

-1/4 pound of butter

-Baldwin’s daughter

John Nutter’s cow - bewitched it when asked to heal the cow, Alizon and Jennet led her there and back as she was blind

1/4 pound of butter - Alizon left some milk and she turned it into butter, despite Demdike not leaving her bed

Baldwin’s daughter - cursed her and caused her death after feud

What did Alizon accuse Old Chattox of doing to:

-Anne Nutter

-John Moore

-Hugh Moore

-Another of John Nutter’s cows

Anne Nutter - bewitched her and caused her death 3 weeks later after laughing at her

John Moore - after accusation of making ale sour, she cursed his son and caused his death by making clay figure

Hugh Moore - died after accusation of bewitching his cattle

John Nutter’s cows - used milk given to recite charm then caused Nutter’s son to kick over milk and cattle to die

What were the consequences of confession for Alizon?

Searched for the Devil’s mark and Elizabeth/James were search but freed

What three signs of witchcraft did Old Demdike confess to?

2nd April, examined at village of Fence and confessed to:

Unable to revoke the name Jesus after meeting with Tibb (familiar), made effigy of person to bewitch them and suckling of a familiar

Who did Old Demdike implicate?

Old Chattox

What did Old Demdike say she saw?

Chattox and Anne making figures from clay and Tibb saw them make effigies of the Nutters

What did Old Chattox confess to voluntarily?

15yrs earlier she had given a man her soul, promised to want nothing and take revenge on people who wronged her

What influence did Fancie (spirit) have over Old Chattox?

Encouraged her to harm people when she didn’t call upon it for prolonged periods of time

What did Margaret Crook say that she saw? What motivation may she have had?

Robert Nutter’s quarrel with Anne Redferne, believed she bewitched him - wanted best outcome for Robert and potentially compensation

What did John Nutter say that he saw? What motivation may he have had?

18yrs previously his father was killed as a result of witchcraft - long standing family feuds

What did James Robinson say that he saw? What motivation may he have had?

Servant of the Nutters, 6yrs earlier accidently soured casks of drink and claimed she had a charm to reverse it - obey Nutters wishes as living in their household

As a result, Nowell kept women detained until the August Lancaster assize

What probably happened at the meeting at Malkin Tower?

Group of helpless peasants come together to appease their hunger by eating a sheep stolen by James Device - worried about implication through association with those already arrested

What was Malkin Towers interpreted as?

Witches’ sabbat a week after the initial investigations, resulted in number of suspected witches being brought under suspicion

Who did James Device identify as having been present at Malkin tower?

Henry Hargreaves (JP) visited Malkin in mid/late April and discovered clay images and teeth, Jennet Preston identified as being at the meeting

27th April, Nicholas Bannister joined to examine Elizabeth, James and Jennet

How old was she?

9yrs old, became main witness at the trial of her family

What would the law have normally dictated in this circumstances? Why do you think Nowell ignored it?

Didn’t allow child witnesses, saw an opportunity to rise in social ranks beyond being a JP if able to uncover a coven of witches

How many witches did Jennet identify?

20 witches, able to name 6

Who revealed more names?

James Device - Potts collated the names for those present at the ‘Great Assembly and Feast‘ at Malkin Tower

What were the three objectives of the meeting according to Jennet and James?

- Secure the release of 4 women in Lancaster Castle by blowing it up

- Carry out ritual to name Alizon’s spirit, she was detained at the time

- Provide protection to Jennet as was on trial at York

What witchcraft did James admit to?

Familiars visiting him, murdered 2 people

Who did both Jennet and James implicate?

Elizabeth (mother)

What was significant about her confession?

It was voluntary, admitted she was responsible for death of John Robinson and having an illegitimate child

What happened as a result of Nowell’s investigation?

11 people were now detained at Lancaster

What happened to Old Demdike shortly after arriving at Lancaster?

Died before 19th May - before Chattox’s investigation

How did Old Chattox change her confession?

Laid increased blame on Demdike, changed place on conversion to Demdike’s home - aimed to secure release/preferential treatment

Who brought in witches for trial apart from Nowell?

Nicholas Bannister

What aspect of the legal system was supposed to reduce local bias?

Assize courts, prevent local magistrates overseeing local cases - arrived on 16th August

What political positions had Sir James Altham held?

Sheriff of London and Essex

1589, MP for Bramber

1605, knighted by James 1 - held similar views and rose quickly under him

1606, appointed Baron of the Exchequer, senior judge over England

What political positions had Sir Edward Bromley held?

Also became Baron of the Exchequer, received training without charge

1603, given large legal responsibility and mediator of proposals between union of England and Scotland

1610, made a Serjeant-at-law (senior barrister) and knighted

Why were they concerned with pleasing the king?

Wanted to work in the London assize circuit, more likely to happen if James was pleased and positive convictions were made

How did all but one defendant plead in the trial?

Not guilty

How did they bend their normal legal principles?

Not allowed to prepare a defence, didn’t know exact charges until in court, accepted dubious evidence and tortured

What was Chattox charged with?

Charged with murder of Robert Nutter 18yrs prior (claimed not guilty) and making clay images of people she intended to bewitch

How did Chattox try to divert attention from herself?

Towards Demdike - not sentenced immediately due to limited time and wanting to hear from Elizabeth

What had Chattox done previously that made her defence very difficult?

Acknowledged evidence presented was true, held in high regard as evidence

What was Elizabeth Device charged with?

Taken into courtroom unwillingly, charged with murder of 3 people

What evidence did Jennet give against her mother?

Well rehearsed and confident, mother had been a witch for 3 or 4yrs and had a familiar called Ball

Who supported Jennet’s evidence?

James Device’s testimony - she was instrumental to organising Malkin Tower meeting

What was James Device charged with?

Charged with murders of Anne Towneley and John Duckworth, also examined before 19th May

How did James react to his previous confession?

Made on 27th April, acknowledged it was true

Who corroborated his evidence?

Anne Towneley’s husband and Jennet

How did he respond to further charges?

Pleaded not guilty

How was his defence undermined?

Jennet - blamed him for death of 2 others and having a familiar, Dandie

What was Anne Redfern charged with?

18th August, charged for role in death of Robert Nutter