PSYC 379-Exam I

questions to answer

What are the two foundational aspects of the scientific method?

1. empirical approach- direct observation, systemic control

2. skeptical attitude- want to see data through observation and replication

What are the ways in which the zeitgeist shapes psychological research?

• how or what research questions are asked

• resources dedicated to science

• acceptance of findings by society

What are the consequences of ethnocentrism, and what is an example of ethnocentrism in psychological research?

consequence: can lead to inappropriate interpretations when incorrect culture lens have been applied to findings, dominated by white college students (WEIRD concept)

ex: (Kohlberg) determined that white men are more morally developed because they value individual rights in ethical decisions

How is science like the legal system in using evidence to make decisions?

• small amount of evidence —> suspicion

• large amount of evidence —> convict

Different types of evidence by strength-weakness

1. describe (low, suspicion of guilt)

2. predict (arrest)

3. determine cause of behavior (arraignment)

4. replication (high, conviction)

Steps & order of research process.

1. develop a research question

2. generate research hypothesis

3. form operational definitions

4. choose research design and method

5. evaluate ethical issues

6. collect/analyze data

7. share results

Why use a multimethod approach to research?

achieves a more complete understanding and overcome weakness of any method

• incorporates qualitative and quantitative, observation, survey, and experimentation

Why is it important to have a skeptical attitude in scientific research?

• important for prevention of cognitive biases based on intuition or what feels right

• essential when thinking like a researcher

• prevents availability heurisitc, illusory correlation, primacy/recency effect

What is the difference between an independent and dependent variable?

independent variable- what is being controlled/manipulated, predictor variable (ex: using too much social media)

dependent variable- what is the outcome/measured behavior, interest variable in predicting (ex: self-esteem)

Example of psychological constructs.

concepts that we use to refer to things, events, relationships (constructs in psych)

• ex: aggression, memory, personality, stress, well-being

Why is operationalization important in psychological research?

important for being specific in how we define constructs, and conduct research based on the definitions

• allows for clear communication, specifity, and replication

What are the types of validity?

truthfulness of the measuure

• Construct Validity: does it measure the construct of interest?

• Face Validity: on the surface, does the measure appear to assess what it claims to assess?

• Content Validity: do experts agree that the measure is valid?

• Predictive Validity: does the measure correlate with other measures of the same construct at a future point in time?

What are the types of reliability?

consistency of the measure

• Test-Retest Reliability: does the same instrument give a similar result at two points in time?

• Inter-Observer Reliability: (Inter-Rater Reliability) do observations made by two or more independent observers agree?

• Instrument Reliability: (Internal Consistency) if someone is depressed, will they endorse all of the depression items on a depression scale?

What does it mean to have a testable hypothesis?

• constructs must be operationalized with clear operational defintions

• must not be circular (event itself is used as an explanation)

• must not appeal to ideas that are not recognized by science

What are the conditions for causal inference, and how do psychologists often go about trying to establish causality?

controlled experiments are used to establish causality by manipulating IV’s one at a time to assess impact on DV

• covariation of events (one event—> other event, must vary together)

• time-order relationship (presumed cause must occur before the presumed effect)

• elimination of plausible alternative causes (explanation only accepted one other explanations are ruled out)

What is an example of a confounding variable?

example: a study examining effectiveness of treatment for depression

• treatment versus control group (IV1),

• but had all cis men in the treatment and cis women in control (Gender = third variable)

• if there are differences between treatment and control, is it the treatment (IV1) or gender (third variable)?

what is the difference between internal and external validity?

internal validity- confidence in the “truth” of the causal relationship

• often strengthened through rigorous experimental design

external “ecological” validity- our results generalized to other people, settings, and conditions

What is the purpose of theory in psychological research?

proposed explanations for the causes of a phenomena and/or how they are

associated

• explains all question formats of behavior/mental process

• logically organized set of statements and empirical knowledge

• suggests testable hypothesis

Differences between ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology.

ontology- nature of reality and being

epistemology- study and acquisition of knowledge, relationship between the knower (research participant) and the would be knower (researcher)

axiology- role and place values and subjectivity in the research process

methodology- process and procedures of research

For each of the 4 philosophies of science we discussed, know how they are similar and different in purpose, ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology.

ontology- one true reality, subjective and socially constructed realities

epistomology- objective, knowledge co-constructed through reality/interaction, proactive research role

axiology- no research values, values should not bias study,

methodology- experimental conditions, quantitative, naturalistic and meaningful

Define, differentiate, and give examples of the 5 APA general guiding principles.

1. beneficence and nonmaleficence- alert to guard against factors that lead to misuese of influence, benefit and try to do no harm

2. fidelity and responsibility- establish relationships of trust, awareness of professional and scientic responsibilities

3. integrity- promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness (no stealing, cheating, or misrepresent facts)

4. justice- fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from contributions of psychology

5. respect for people’s rights and dignity- respect dignity and worth of all people, rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality and self-determination

Define, differentiate, and give examples of the three Belmont principles.

1. Respect for persons- individuals should be treated as autonomous agents and those diminished autonomy are entitled to protection

2. Beneficence- treated in ethical manner by respecting their decisions and protecting them from harm, make efforts to secure well-being (do no harm and maximize possible benefits)

3. Justice- sense of fairness in distribution or what is deserved, entilement of people (should not be denied)

What types of risk are there?

types include:

• physical injury

• social injury

• mental or emotional stress

  • reporting on personal or painful issues can be stressful

  • even participants may experience in the research is not greater than what they might experience in daily life

How can we minimize each type of risk?

• social risk

  • collect data anonymously

  • maintain confidentiality of data

  • report in non-identifiable ways

• mental or emtoional stress

  • be clear about what study is an is not about

  • debreif, provide resources for professional services

  • possibly screen out participants who may have anxiety or experience greater stress

How can we increase the benefit of research participation?

being clear about the benefit to the individual and socidety

increase by:

• provide feedback to the participant to learn about themselves

• make it an educational experience

• if an intervention study, ensure wait-list control also has access to treatment

• emphasize how even if it doesn’t benefit them directly, findings may benefit others in future

Be able to identify possible risk and benefits to research scenarios. It may be helpful to practice this with examples from the lecture notes.

example 1: College students complete an adjective checklist to describe their current mood. The researcher seeks to identify depressed students so they can be included in a study that examines cognitive deficits associated with depression.

• risks: psychological distress, labeling, stigma, privacy

• benefits: direct resource referral, course credit

example 2: A psychologist administers a battery of achievement tests to elderly adults in the dayroom of a nursing facility. The psychologist seeks to determine if there is a decline in mental functioning with advancing age.

• risks: psychological distress , labels achievement and motivation levels as potentially declining, public setting lack of privacy

• benefits: learn about mental functions, early detection, cognitive engagement

Be able to give examples of when obtaining informed consent can be challenging.

• some are unable to provide legal consent

  • young children, mentally impaired, legal guardians provide consent + obtain assent from participants

• some populations are vulnerable

  • prisoners (looking bad), econmically disadvantaged (need of money), miltary personnel (obeying disorders)

What is meant by the statement, “informed consent is a process?”

it is not just a signed document

• you need to ensure privacy protections, provide clear and precise information to the participant about the study

What are the pros and cons to using deception?

pros:

• allows study of natural behavior

• opportunity to investigate behavior and mental processes

cons:

• contradicts principle of informed consent

• relationship between researcher and participant, not open and honest

• frequent deception makes people suspicious about research and psychology

What factors should be taken into account to justify the use of deception?

• the study is very important

• no other avialable methods

• must inform participants of the reasoning its used

• discuss any misconceptions

• removes harmful effects

• must debrief, so that participants feel good about the research experience and leave the study in the same state as arrived

What is Rosenthal’s main argument (discussed in class) about the ethics of doing psychological research?

• “Everything else being equal, research that is of a higher scientific quality is more ethically defensible”

• Bad research is unethical because it wastes time, money, resources, effort, and should not have been conducted in the first place

• Points to broader questions . . . And raises questions about who defines what “counts” as good research

What are basic steps for ethical decision making?

1. find out the facts (procedure, participants, method)

2. identify the relevant ethical issues (risks, benefits, informed consent, privacy, confidentiality, deception, debreif)

3. decide what is at stake for all parties (everyone involved)

4. identify alternative methods, procedures (ethical implications)

5. decide on the action to be taken (what the IRB does)

• approve research

• conditional approval with modifications

• do not approve research

Different types of tests in ethical decisions: Reversibility Test, Common Practice Test, Legality Test, Colleague Test, Wise Relative Test, Mirror Test, Publicity Test.

• harm test- benefits outweigh the harm?

• reversibility test- good idea if trading places?

• common practice test- what if everyone behaved this way?

• legality test- legal vs ethical laws?

• colleague test- what would they say/advice?

• wise relative test- what would they say/advice?

• mirror test- would you feel proud of yourself?

• publicity test- open to public?

In an APA style research report, know the types of information that go within the major sections of Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, References, Tables, and Figures.

introduction (problem and importance, summarize relevant background literature, describe purpose, develop hypothesis, “why”)

method (what we did/details, how the study was conducted and variables operationalized, participants)

results (what we found, answers research questions, facts, stats)

discussion (interpretations of findings, tying it all together, limitations, problems, ideas for future “conclusion”)

references (who did we rely on, complete citation for each source, alphabetical order)

tables (concrete evidence, numerical)

figures (visual representation of data)

• both efficiently and quickly communicate information