Unit 2: Age of Reformation

Indulgences

Selling of forgiveness by the Catholic Church - used by the church to raise money

• Buying an indulgence would give you or a loved one salvation…passage to heaven and freedom from purgatory

• sale is often associated with Johann Tetzel and Martin Luther's opposition to it

Simony

the buying and selling of church offices

Pluralism

Holding multiple church offices at the same time

Nepotism

favoritism shown to family or friends by those in power, especially in Catholic clerical hiring practices

Pope Leo X

began to sell indulgences to raise money to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome

• tried to get Luther to recant his criticisms of the church

• condemned him an outlaw and a heretic when he would not do so

• banned his ideas and excommunicated him from the church

Sola scriptura, sola fide, sola gratia

Luther's doctrine & beliefs for how one can achieve salvation

- Sola scriptura (only through scripture): the Bible is the ultimate authority, not the pope or clergy members

- Sola fide (only through faith): people gained salvation through their belief in God alone, not through faith and good works

- Sola gratia (only through grace): God's grace and forgiveness helps you access heaven, not indulgences

Diet of Worms

Martin Luther's heresy trial before Charles V in the Holy Roman Empire

- Luther was expected to recant, but he did not. As a result, he was declared to be a heretic and everyone in the HRE was prohibited from following his beliefs

Predestination

Calvinist belief that God had already determined who would gain salvation (go to heaven)

- nothing you could do to change your fate

- people did not know whether they were going to heaven or hell- those that God was sending to heaven were called "The Elect"

Transubstantiation

Catholic belief that the bread and wine actually become the body and blood of Christ.

Martin Luther

German monk who became one of the most famous critics of the Roman Catholic Church

• in 1517, he nailed the 95 Theses, or statements of belief, attacking church practices like indulgences, simony, and absenteeism

• sparked religious reform (Reformation) in Germany and eventually beyond

• claimed there were only 2 sacraments: baptism and communion

95 Theses

Nailed to a church door in Wittenberg, Germany in 1517 and are widely seen as being the catalyst that started the Protestant Reformation

• contained Luther's list of accusations against the Roman Catholic Church

Priesthood of all believers

Luther's revolutionary idea that every believer had the ability to read and interpret the Bible for themselves and that all people of faith were viewed by God as equals.- challenged the Church's position that priests had an exclusive ability to read and interpret the Bible

Protestant Reformation

Christian religious reform movement beginning in 1517

• split Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the "protestors" forming several new Christian denominations, including the Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican Churches, among many others

• primary leader was Martin Luther

German Peasants Revolt

Series of uprisings in Germany during the 16th century

• involved tens of thousands of peasants who were inspired by Luther's ideas to challenge the existing order and revolt against their rulers to achieve equality and better conditions

• opposed by Luther, who supported order

• ruthlessly crushed

Seven Catholic sacraments

Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Reconciliation, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony

Johann Tetzel

Monk selling indulgences in Wittenberg

• denounced by Luther in his 95 Theses as corrupt

• "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs."

Ulrich Zwingli

Swiss theologian and Christian reformer

• similar to Luther in his attacks on Catholic corruption and practices like fasting and clerical celibacy

• viewed the bread and wine of the Eucharist as symbols of the blood and body of Christ, not the real body and blood

• failed to agree with Luther on the meaning of the Eucharist

Henry VIII

King of England from 1509 to 1547, founder of the Church of England, and infamous for his six wives

• broke with the Catholic Church because the pope would not grant him a divorce

• established Church of England (Anglican Church) as the official religion of England under the monarch's control

Thomas Cromwell

Became King Henry VII's close advisor following Cardinal Wolsey's dismissal. He and his contemporary Thomas Cranmer convinced the king to break from Rome and made the Church of England increasingly more Protestant.

Act of Supremacy

A 1534 law enacted by the English Parliament, making the monarch the head of the Church of England.

• they could control doctrine, appointments, and discipline

• brought formerly Catholic land, monasteries, and wealth under the king’s control

Anglican Church

Protestant church established in England after 1534 by Henry VIII with himself as head, at least in part to obtain a divorce from his first wife

John Calvin

French/Swiss religious reformer and founder of Calvinism who believed in predestination and a strict sense of morality for society

• City of Geneva, Switzerland instituted strict rules that monitored behavior and enforced piety

Anabaptists

Radical sect of the 16th-century Reformation that rejected infant baptism and believed in the separation of church and state

• persecuted and rejected by both Catholics and Protestants

• seized control of city of Munster in southern Germany, abolished private property, allowed men to have multiple wives, and were attacked by a Catholic/Protestant army

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor, member of the Habsburg family, and ruler of Habsburg territories (parts of Germany, Austria, & Spain)

• called the Diet of Worms in 1521 to force Luther to recant his beliefs

• strong supporter of Catholicism and tried to crush the Reformation

• Went to war many times with the Valois family of France, called the Habsburg-Valois Wars

Ignatius Loyola

Spanish priest who established the Society of Jesus, also known as the Jesuit Order

Teresa of Avila

(1515-1582) Spanish Carmelite nun and one of the principal saints of the Roman Catholic Church; she reformed the Carmelite order. Her fervor for the Catholic Church proved inspiring for many people during the Reformation period.

Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

Founded by Ignatius Loyola as a teaching and missionary order to resist the spread of Protestantism.

• played an important part in the Catholic Reformation and helped create channels of trade and knowledge between Europe and the rest of the world.

• converted millions to Catholicism in the Americas and Asia

Council of Trent

Meeting of Roman Catholic authorities that met to reform abusive church practices and reconcile with the Protestants.

• addressed abusive practices like simony, pluralism, indulgences, and clerical immorality

• reaffirmed church doctrine (faith AND good works to achieve salvation)

• maintained central power of Pope

• confirmed all seven existing sacraments

• reaffirmed Latin as the language of worship

• forbade clerical marriage and maintained clerical celibacy

Francis Xavier

Jesuit priest and missionary who worked mostly in India and Japan

• missionary work was assisted by Portuguese trading routes and stations

• successful at converting thousands in Japan

Index of Prohibited Books

Books that supported Protestantism, contradicted the Church's teachings, or that were overly critical of the Church were banned.

• was supposed to protect people from Protestant thought or incorrect theological teachings, but also included scientific writing that contradicted Church teachings

El Greco

Spanish painter of Greek origin who is the best example of a Mannerist artist

• grotesquely elongated human forms and dramatic use of color

Francis I

King of France; a Renaissance monarch; patron of the arts; imposed new controls on the Catholic Church; ally of the Ottoman Sultan against the Holy Roman Emperor. Made an agreement with Pope Leo X that allowed the French king to select French bishops and abbots

Suleiman the Magnificent

In his Ottoman realm, was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 until his death in 1566. Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's economic, military and political power. The most illustrious sultan of the Ottoman Empire; also known as 'The Lawgiver.' At the helm of an expanding empire, Suleiman personally instituted major judicial changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law.

Schmalkadic Wars

One year period of violence between Charles V and the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League (1546-1547) Imperial forces win, but Lutheran ideas have spread. A war where the Holy Roman Empire initially defeats the Lutherans, but German Protestants ally with Henry VIII, and a truce was ultimately reached

Habsburg-Valois Wars

A series of conflicts from 1494 to 1559 between the leading European powers (Austria/ Spanish vs. the French) for control of the Italian states. The French lost their claims to Italian lands, but did help keep Germany from uniting.

• France vs. Habsburgs. France tried keeping GERMANY DIVIDED. Led to slow unification of German states.

Peace of Augsburg

1555 agreement in which Charles V recognized Lutheranism as a legal religion in the Holy Roman Empire- created the concept of "his region, his religion". This meant that German princes (rulers of their individual German states) were free to choose whether their state would be Catholic or Protestant. However, individuals were not able to choose their religion.

Fuggers

This was a German family of prominent bankers and merchants in Augsberg (Jacob Fugger). They were members of the mercantile patriciate in Augsberg and were venture capitalists. They gained great status through wealth, and dominance similar to that of the Medicis. They were allies of the Habsburgs, which was profitable for both families.

Huguenots

French Calvinists who struggled for greater political power and rights from the Catholic government

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Mass slaying of 10,000-20,000 Huguenots (Protestants) in Paris on Saint Bartholomew's Day in 1572

Edict of Nantes

A 1598 proclamation of Henry IV that granted Huguenots the rights of public worship and religious toleration in France.

• still recognized Catholicism as official religion of France

• ended religious violence in France

Religious Pluralism

An attitude or policy that allows different religions and religious beliefs to co-exist in society

Catherine de Medici

Ruled France as regent for her 11 year old son, Charles IX

• religious conflict grew under her rule and resulted in decades of religious wars

• ordered the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre against Huguenots

Guises

The Guises were a powerful French family who dominated eastern France. This family became Francis II advisors, mainly for being Catholic and having family relationships with the young king. The Guises influenced all of the kings Catherine de Medicis bore. They also made a plot to eliminate the powerful Protestant, Coligny. Failing, they panicked, and began Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre.

Bourbons/Henry IV

Prominent Calvinist who became King Henry IV of France in 1589

- first French monarch in the House of Bourbon

- converted to Catholicism in order to forge a compromise between French Catholics and Protestants (acting as a politique)

- granted limited tolerance to Huguenots (French Protestants) with the 1598 Edict of Nantes.

Elizabeth I

Queen of England from 1558-1603 after the death of her father Henry VIII and half sister Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary)

• converted England back to Anglicanism after Queen Mary had worked to restore Catholicism

• solidified control over religious life of English people

Mary Tudor

"Bloody Mary" daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon who was Queen of England from 1553 to 1558 she was the wife of Philip II of Spain and when she restored Roman Catholicism to England many Protestants were burned at the stake as heretics.

Act of Uniformity

The Act of Uniformity 1549 which established the Book of Common Prayer as the only legal form of worship in the Anglican Church.

Politiques

Rulers who put political necessities above personal or religious beliefs

• example: both Henry IV of France and Elizabeth I of England prioritized political unity over religious conflict

"one king, one faith, one law"

This is a phrase that refers to the rule of King Louis XIV of France, who established French absolutism by standardizing the government and putting Catholicism above other religions.

United Provinces

The Dutch United Provinces was a confederation of seven provinces in the Netherlands that existed from 1581 - 1795, achieving independence from Spain and becoming a major and maritime economic power. The seven provinces united in 1579 that formed the basis of the Republic of the Netherlands; they appealed to England for aid to fight Spain

Pacification of Ghent

An alliance between the provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands that was signed on November 8, 1576. It was a revolt against the Spanish Habsburgs and a declaration of the Netherlands' national self-consciousness. All provinces in the Netherlands would stand together under William of Orange's leadership, respect religious differences, and demand the removal of Spanish troops

Twelve Years' Truce

A truce (ceasefire) between Spain and the Dutch Republic that lasted from 1609 to 1621 with efforts to negotiate peace. It was a significant moment in the recognition of the Dutch Republic as a sovereign nation.

Philip II

Upon becoming King of Spain in 1556, Philip II was the ruler of one of the largest empires the world had ever seen. During his long life, he attempted to expand the power of Spain, centralize the government, and lead the Counter Reformation to protect the Catholic Church against Protestant reformers by persecuting Protestants in his holdings.

Spanish Armada

The Spanish Armada was one part of a planned invasion of England by King Philip II of Spain. Launched in 1588, it was made up of roughly 150 ships and 18,000 men. It was defeated due to bad weather conditions and the better use of naval guns and battle tactics by the English.

Gustavus Adolphus

Swedish Lutheran (Protestant) king who won victories for the Protestant side in the Thirty Years' War and lost his life in one of the battles

Defenestration of Prague

Catholic officials were thrown out of a castle window in Prague by a group of Protestants, setting off the Thirty Years' War.

Thirty Years War

Catholic-Protestant religious conflict from 1618-1648 between various European territories and rulers

- began as a religious war and became a political war

• Phase 1: Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)…victory for Catholic Habsburgs

• Phase 2: Danish Phase (1625-1630)…victory for Catholics and resulted in Protestant princes being forced to return to Catholicism

• Phase 3: Swedish Phase (1630-1635)…victory for Protestants, who were able to reverse previous Catholic gains. Notably, Catholic France supported the Protestant side due to their hatred of the Habsburg family

• Phase 4: French Phase (1635-1648)…victory for Protestants, as France entered war on Protestant side

Led to massive population loss and weakening of HRE

Peace of Westphalia

1. Ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648

2. Recognized Calvinism as a legally permissible faith (German princes could now choose between Catholicism, Lutheranism, & Calvinism)

3. Recognized the sovereign independent authority of over 300 German states

4. Continued the political fragmentation of Germany

5. France replaced Spain as the leading European power

6. Power of Holy Roman Empire were greatly diminished as they lost massive amounts of territory (Italy, Netherlands, etc) and religious influence (Peace of Augsburg was confirmed - his region, his religion) and began seeking new territory in the east

Mannerism

Artistic movement that emerged in Italy in the mid 1500s

• rejected the symmetry, balance, and perfection of Renaissance art

• exaggerated subjects' lighting and body form using elongated proportions, twisted poses, and spatial compression

Baroque

Artistic movement that developed out of Mannerism in Italy around 1570

• characterized by dramatic and complex forms, bold ornamentation, and drama/dramatic lighting

• combined classical influence of Renaissance with religious imagery of the Reformation

Peter Paul Rubens

a Flemish artist and diplomat and the most famous Baroque artist who studied Michelangelo in Italy and took that Renaissance style to the next level of drama, motion, color, religion and animation, which is portrayed in his paintings

Gian Lorenzo Bernini

He was an Italian architect and sculptor, famous for Saint Peter's Basilica. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was more prominently the leading sculptor of his age, credited with creating the Baroque style of sculpture.