Psych 111 Exam 1

How did psychology develop?

Wilhelm Wundt said psychology was a science and uses the scientific method

What were the parents of psychology?

philosophy and physiology

psych means (Greek)

the soul

logos means (Greek)

study of a subject

structuralists and functionalists both agreed

subject matter of psychology should be consciousness

structuralism

physical structure and basic elements (like physics)

who did structuralism emerge through?

Edward Titchener

functionalism

• function/purpose of consciousness

• how people adapt their behavior on demands of the world around them

• ex. child development, different behavior of men and women

who came up with a theory of emotion still influential today?

William James (behaviorist)

behaviorism

• LEARNING

• psychologists should only study observable behaviors

• consciousness and thoughts are not a proper subject matter because cannot observe them (or use scientific method)

• all behaviors are learned, including psychological disorders (skinner on Time magazine: people do not have free will)

what are the three main theories of behaviorism?

classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory

classical conditioning

• learn new responses when things are connected in paired

• automatic and involuntary

• ex. dog “learns” to salivate when hears bell, eyes dilate in dark room

operant conditioning

• learn as a result of rewards and punishments

• explains voluntary behavior

• skinner box: rat pushes lever and gets food (reward) so more likely to push it again

social learning theory

• learn through observations and modeling (imitation) of behavior (especially complex behavior)

• Albert Bandura

• ex. driving a car

what is the importance of behaviorism?

• animals can be used to help understand human behavior (studies/experiments easier with animals)

• further established psychology as an empirical scient

• made important contributions to learning theory and psychotherapy

who were the famous behaviorists?

John Watson and B.F. Skinner

psychoanalytic

• attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior

• see analyst 4-5 times per week for many years (intense laying down therapy)

psychodynamic

less intense therapy (1-2x/per sitting up)

both psychoanalytic and psychodynamic therapies based on principles

• unconsciousness (having thought and feelings influencing behavior without realizing it)

• early childhood experiences/relationships (blueprint for how you will relate and interact with people as an adult)

• conflictual nature of mental life: superego (conscious), ego (logical and rational/mediator), and id (illogical, emotional, and irrational/pleasure principle)

• defense mechanisms

importance of psychoanalytic/psychodynamic

• brought new perspective on human nature (many things go on in our head that we don’t know)

• created psychotherapy

who founded psychoanalytic/psychodynamic perspective?

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Fread used what analogy

comparing mind to iceberg and 9/10 of the mind is unconscious or “underwater”

humanism

• took much more optimistic view of behaviorism

• humans have free will, are rational, and self-actualization (contradicts psychoanalytic school)

• humans are fundamentally different from animals

who founded humanism?

Carl Rogers

importance of humanism

• recognized people’s potential for self-actualization and goodness

• emphasized the importance of therapeutic relationship (client trusts therapist and believes they have the client’s best interest at interest)

• respect for client’s autonomy (client ultimately knows what’s best)

humanists believe what is the most important component of effective therapy?

the RELATIONSHIP between the therapist and client

cognitive psychology

• THINKING (same thing as consciousness)

• to understand human behavior, you must study how people acquire, store, and process information

• memory, language, problem-solving, and cognitive development

what led to cognitive psychology’s development?

computers

• brain like the hardware

• thoughts are like the software

who developed cognitive psychology?

Jean Piaget

what is the importance of cognitive psychology?

• mental processes are studied again

• important new therapies

what is the cognitive behavior theory?

thoughts, emotions, and behaviors all influence each other and how we feel and act

biological psychology

• body structures (like the brain) and biochemical processes affect behavior

• we have to understand biological factors to understand behaviors

• neurotransmitters play an important role in behavior and psychological disorders

who is the founder of biological psychology?

James Olds

evolutionary psychology

• evolution is responsible for patterns of behavior in a species

• it examines behaviors to determine their adaptive value (reproduction and survival)

• selects physical traits and cognitive behaviors for an organism to survive

• ex. walking upright, being able to lie, being attracted to good-looking people

who is the founder of evolutionary psychology?

David Buss

what is the importance of evolutionary psychology?

it was a significant new perspective on human behavior

positive psychology

studies positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspect of human existence (what makes life worth living)

what were the three main interest areas of positive psychology?

positive emotions (happiness, love), positive traits (virtues), and positive institutions and communities (strong families, healthful work environments)

importance of positive psychology

shifted psychology’s focus from pathology, weakness, and suffering to emotions and traits that make life worth living

who founded positive psychology?

Martin Seligman

other professionals that do therapy

psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, social workers, and psychic nurses

industrial/organizational (I.O.) psychologists

• experts in world of work

• determine who should be hired

• good worker morale

• efficient and happy workplace

• HR department

forensic psychologists

• pertaining to the court

• deals with corps

• determine if defendant is able to take stance, is dangerous, was insane at time of action (used <1% of time)

school psychologists

identify children having difficulties in school and help improve those difficulties

ergonomists

• human factory psychologists

• experts in machinery

• design machines to be used safely and efficiently

• ex. ergonomist designing standing desk

jury consultants

• help attorneys present their case most effectively and help pick jury

• VERY expensive

sport psychologists

help athletes perform better, concentrate more, and practice more effectively

physiological psychologists

experts in the brain and the connection between the brain and body

clinical psychologists

evaluate, diagnose, and treat individuals with psychological disorders, especially more serious disorders

counseling psychologists

• overlaps with clinical psychology where provide therapy

• usually less serious disorders

• experts in vocational tests

• ex. picking major, marriage counseling

themes related to psychology as a field of study

psychology…

• is empirical (uses scientific method)

• is theoretically diverse (a lot of schools that study different things)

• evolves in a socio-historical context (what psychologists study depends on the time and societies that live in

  • ex. obedience from the Nazis

themes related to psychology’s subject matter

• behavior is determined by multiple causes

  • ex. multiple reasons someone may choose a major

• behavior is shaped by culture

  • ex. we drive on right side of road, how close ppl stand when talking, silence in conversations

• heredity and environment jointly influence behavior

  • ex. getting a depression disorder (have genetics and stressful environment)

• people’s experience of the world is highly subjective

  • ex. different opinions of movies, dating, etc.

psychology definition

the science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie behavior

psychiatrist

• went to medical school and residency

• CANNOT prescribe psychological tests

• can prescribe medications

psychologists (compared to psychiatrists)

• are scientists (trained in scientific method)

• CAN order psychological tests

• can prescribe medications (with additional training)

what are the goals of scientific research?

• measurement and description

• understanding and prediction

• application and control

measurement and description

• lowest goal

• operational definition of variables

• ex. how many words people with the THC v. placebo can recall

understanding and prediction

• understand why certain psychological things happen

• predict what will happen using that information

• prediction = hypothesis

application and control

• most important and highest goal

• come up with theory (explains set of observations in clear and precise terms and is falsifiable)

• apply the outcomes to the real world (ex. share with world the effects of marijuana on memory)

what are the steps in scientific research?

1. translate a theory or an idea into a testable hypothesis/prediction

2. select the research method and design the study (descriptive correlation or experiments)

3. collect the data

4. analyze the data (use statistics) and draw conclusions

5. report the findings (usually psychological journal)

what are the two different types of research methods?

descriptive correlational research and experiments

experiment

• strong internal validity

• weak external validity

• control- uses artificial setting

what is descriptive-correlational research and the 3 types?

• where researchers measure the correlation between two variables WITHOUT controlling them

• naturalistic observation

• case study

• survey

naturalistic observation

• careful observation of what happens under more or less natural conditions

• Jane Goodal studying chimps in natural setting for decades

• have to watch out for observer effect and observer bias

  • can minimize observer bias with an observational record (formal log of data and observations)

case study

• thorough description of a person, including their abilities and disabilities, medical condition, life history, unusual experiences, or whatever else is relevant

• Phineas Gage’s railroad accident

• can study these rare things only if they occur naturally

survey

• a study of the prevalence of certain beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors based on people’s response to specific questions

• problems

  • no random sample

  • people don’t think carefully about their responses

  • wording of questions

  • socially desirable responses

what is the main advantage of descriptive correlational research studies?

allows us to study scientific matters that we cannot study in an experiment due to impractical or unethical reasons

experimenter bias

when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results

how do we solve experimenter bias?

when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results

demand characteristics

clues that tell a participant what the experimenter hopes to find

how do we minimize demand characteristics?

• concealing the true purpose of the study

• double-blind procedure

direct observation

observers are trained watch and record behavior as objectively and precisely as possible (may use a stopwatch or video recorder)

questionnaire

subjects are administered a series of written questions designed to obtain information about attitudes, opinions, and specific aspects of their behavior

interview

face-to-face dialogue conducted to obtain information about specific aspects of a subject’s behavior

psychological test

subjects administered a standardized measure to obtain a sample of their behavior (tests usually used to assess mental abilities or personality traits)

physiological recording

instrument used to monitor and record a specific physiological process in a subject (ex. blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tension, and brain activity)

examination of archival records

researcher analyzes existing institutional records (the archives) (ex. census, economic, medical, legal, educational, and business records)

correlations tell us that…

variables are related, but does not tell us WHY they are related (don’t establish causation)

external validity

when research findings apply to the real world

internal validity

establishing cause-and-effect

3 steps in an experiment

• directly vary a condition you think might affect behavior

• create two or more groups of participants that are alike in all ways except for the condition that varies

• record if varying condition has any effect on behavior

experimental group

group exposed to independent variable

control group

treated like experimental group but not exposed to independent variable

extraneous variables

• conditions that a researcher wishes to prevent affecting the outcome of the experiment (also called third variable)

• can prevent through random assignment

random assignment

a participant has an equal chance of being in either the experimental or control group

superego

• type of thinking: conscience

• driven by moral principles

ego

• mediator

• defense mechanisms

• type of thinking: logical and rational

• driven by reality principle

id

• type of thinking: illogical, emotional, and irrational

• driven by pleasure principle

• unconscious