AP Psychology 2025 Unit 4 AP review

Attribution Theory

The theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

Dispositional Attributions

Attributing behavior to a person’s internal characteristics

Situational Attributions

Attributing behavior to the situation

Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency for observers to underestimate the situation and overestimate personal disposition in explaining others’ behavior

Actor-Observer Bias

Tendency to attribute others' behavior to disposition and our own to the situation

Self-Serving Bias

Tendency to attribute our successes to internal causes and failures to external ones

Explanatory Style

Way people explain events, either positively or negatively

Internal Locus of Control

Belief that you control and are responsible for what happens to you

External Locus of Control

Belief that what happens is due to fate, luck, or other people

Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Social Comparison Theory

Idea that we evaluate ourselves by comparing to others

Relative Deprivation

Belief that one is worse off than others with whom one compares oneself

Stereotype

Generalized belief about a group of people

Prejudice

Unjustifiable negative attitude toward a group and its members

Discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Cognitive Load

Amount of information our working memory can process at once

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious beliefs or feelings that influence behavior

Just-World Phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve

Out-Group Homogeneity Effect

Tendency to view out-group members as more similar than in-group members

Ethnocentrism

Belief that one’s culture is superior to others

Belief Perseverance

Tendency to cling to beliefs even when presented with contradictory evidence

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to favor information that supports our beliefs

Cognitive Dissonance

Mental discomfort when actions conflict with attitudes

Social Norms

Expected standards of behavior

Social Influence Theory

Explains how individuals conform to group norms and expectations

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Informative Social Influence

Conforming because we believe others’ interpretation of reality

Persuasion

Process of influencing others’ beliefs or behaviors

Peripheral Route Persuasion

Persuasion based on superficial cues

Central Route Persuasion

Persuasion based on logical arguments and content

Halo Effect

Tendency to think someone with one good trait has others as well

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

Agreeing to small request increases likelihood of agreeing to a larger one later

Door-in-the-Face Phenomenon

Refusing a large request increases likelihood of agreeing to a smaller one

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to match group standard

Obedience

Complying with a direct order from authority

Conditions that Strengthen Obedience

Authority presence, proximity, legitimacy, no role models for defiance

Individualism

Emphasizing personal goals and individual identity

Collectivism

Emphasizing group goals and social roles

Multiculturalism

Recognition and respect of cultural differences

Group Polarization

Tendency for group discussion to strengthen the group’s prevailing opinions

Groupthink

Desire for harmony overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives

Diffusion of Responsibility

Reduction in sense of responsibility when others are present

Social Loafing

Tendency to exert less effort in group tasks

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in group situations

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on simple tasks in presence of others

False Consensus Effect

Tendency to overestimate how much others share our beliefs

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that override differences among people

Social Trap

Situation where pursuing self-interest leads to group loss

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

Applies psychological concepts to the workplace

Prosocial Behavior

Voluntary behavior intended to benefit others

Altruism

Unselfish concern for the well-being of others

Social Responsibility Norm

Expectation to help those who need help

Bystander Effect

Likelihood of helping decreases when others are present

Personality

Individual’s characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychodynamic Theory

Views personality as interaction between unconscious and conscious mind

Unconscious

Reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and memories

Ego

Conscious part of personality that mediates demands of id, superego, and reality

Defense Mechanisms

Ego’s protective methods for reducing anxiety

Repression

Banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts from consciousness

Regression

Retreating to a more infantile stage of development

Reaction Formation

Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites

Projection

Disguising one’s impulses by attributing them to others

Rationalization

Offering self-justifying explanations

Displacement

Redirecting impulses toward a safer object or person

Denial

Refusing to believe or perceive painful realities

Sublimation

Transforming unacceptable impulses into socially valued motivations

Projective Test

Personality test providing ambiguous stimuli to reveal inner dynamics

Preconscious

Information that is not conscious but retrievable into awareness

Humanistic Psychology

Focuses on potential for healthy personal growth

Unconditional Positive Regard

Acceptance and support regardless of what a person says or does

Self-Actualization

Motivation to fulfill one’s full potential

Social-Cognitive Theory

Personality is shaped by interaction of behavior, cognition, and environment

Reciprocal Determinism

Interacting influences of behavior, cognition, and environment

Self-Concept

Our understanding and evaluation of who we are

Self-Esteem

One’s feelings of self-worth

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one’s ability to succeed at a task

Trait

Characteristic pattern of behavior

Personality Inventory

Questionnaire used to assess traits

Factor Analysis

Statistical method identifying trait clusters

The Big Five Personality Factors

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (OCEAN)

Drive Reduction Theory

Physiological needs create tension that motivates satisfying the need

Arousal Theory

People seek optimal levels of arousal

Optimal Level of Arousal

Moderate arousal leads to best performance

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Moderate arousal = optimal performance

Self-Determination Theory

Motivation to meet needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness

Intrinsic Motivation

Doing something for its own sake

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something for rewards or to avoid punishment

Instinct

Unlearned, fixed behavior pattern

Instinct Theory

Behavior is motivated by biological instincts

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

Explains conflicts involving choice

Approach-Approach Conflict

Choosing between two positive options

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Choosing between two negative options

Approach-Avoidance Conflict

One option has both positive and negative aspects

Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict

Choosing between options with multiple pros and cons

Sensation-Seeking Theory

Some people have a high need for varied, novel experiences

Leptin

Hormone that reduces hunger

Ghrelin

Hormone that increases hunger

Lateral Hypothalamus

Stimulates hunger ("on" switch)

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Suppresses hunger ("off" switch)