demography

What are 3 trends in birth rates

Long-term decline in the number of births

Fluctuations in births - baby booms following war when men returned

Long-term decline in fertility rates

What are 3 things causing these changes

Changes in women’s position

Decline in infant mortality rate

Child centredness

What are some changes in women’s position

Paid employment, increased educational opportunities - Equal Pay Act 1970 & Sex Discrimination Act 1975

Attitudes towards family life & women’s roles

Easier access to divorce, abortion, & reliable contraception gives control over their fertility & family life

Sarah Harper’s views on women’s changing positions

Education has been the most important factor as it has changed the mind-set of young women, resulting in fewer children. They see more possibilities beyond the housewife image

Why has a drop in infant mortality rates led to lower birth rates & sociologist

Harper

If many infants die parents have more children to replace those they have lost, thereby increasing birth rates. Whereas if infants survive parents will have fewer of them

Why have infant mortality rates dropped

Improved housing & better sanitation, such as clean drinking water, reduced chances of infection

Better nutrition, including mothers

Better knowledge of hygiene through education

Improved medical knowledge & postnatal clinics & services

Why have families become more child centred

Laws banning child labour, introducing compulsory schooling, raising school leaving age - children are economically dependent on parents for longer

Changing norms about what children have a right to expect from parents materially - cost of raising children increased

Financial pressures = less able & willing to have a large family

What consequences have lower birth rates had on the family

The creation of smaller families - women are more likely to be free to go to work, creating duel earner couples, negotiated families, postmodern families

However, couples that are financially stable may be able to have larger families & still afford child-care that allows them both to work full time

What consequences have lower birth rates had on society

Dependency ratio (working : non working)

The earnings, savings, & taxes of the working population support the dependent population, children make up a large amount of the DP, so a fall in children reduces the burden of dependency

However, fewer babies = fewer young adults & a smaller working population so the burden may increase again

What consequences have lower birth rates had on public services

Fewer schools, maternity services, child health services, houses needed - less ‘place’ for children

The collapse of child-based services limits employment opportunities

Creation of an ageing population

What are 2 trends in death rates

Begun to fall from 1870 & continued to do so until 1930

Rose slightly in the 1930’s-40’s due to the economic depression & WW2

What are 4 reasons for reduced death rates

Improved nutrition

Medical improvements

Smoking & diets

Public health measures

How has improved nutrition led to decreased death rates & researcher

Thomas McKeown - accounted for ½ the reduction in rates

Reduced number of deaths from tuberculosis (& other infections) - increased the resistance to infection & the survival chances of those who did become infected

However, doesn’t explain why females who received a smaller amount of food lived longer than males

How have medical improvements led to a decrease in death rates

Increased medical knowledge, techniques, & organisations

~ Before the 50’s these were limited

~ Introduction of antibiotics

~ Immunity from infections

~ Maternity services

~ Set up of the NHS 1948

~ Improved medication & by-pass surgeries

How has smoking and diet led to a decrease in death rates & sociologist

Harper - the greatest fall in death rates has come from the reduction in people smoking

In the past smoking was promoted & now research has demonstrated its negative impacts (cancers)

Harper - we may be moving into an American health culture where lifestyles are unhealthy but a long lifespan is achieved by use of costly medication and surgery

How have public health measures led to a decrease in death rates

Improved social housing (drier, well-ventilated)

Cleaner drinking water and improved sewage disposal

Clean air acts to reduce pollution

Health and safety regulations at work to reduce dangerous jobs & work accidents

Better pay and higher living standards

Examples of class, gender, and regional differences in death rates - consequence

Women generally live longer

People in the south live longer than the north

Working class labouring men are 3x more likely to die before 65 compared to middle class professional men

What are 2 trends in the aging population

• 2023 - 19% of the pop was aged 65+, compared to 14% in 1971

• By 2050, its predicted that1 in 4 people in the UK will be aged 65+

What is the aging population caused by

Increased life expectancy

Declining infant mortality

Declining fertility

6 impacts of an aging population

Increased dependency ratio

Strain on public services

Changing family structures

Impact on housing

Economic opportunities

Social isolation and loneliness

How does the aging pop impact the dependency ratio

As people live longer but retire earlier, fewer people are contributing to the economy

E.g. 2021 - the UK’s dependency ratio was 56 dependents per 100 working age people (expected to rise to 66 by 2040)

Higher taxes may be needed to fund state pensions, healthcare, & social care

How does the aging population affect the family

“Sandwich generation’ - middle aged adults caring for both children and aging parents → face financial, emotional & time pressures

Rise of ‘beanpole families’ means families have more vertical generations but fewer siblings or cousins

How does the aging population affect housing

Many elderly people ‘under occupy’ homes, often living alone in family sized houses which limits housing availability for younger families & pushes up house prices

2023 - 54% of people aged 65+ lived in homes with at least 2 spare bedrooms

How does the aging population affect economic opportunities

The ‘silver economy’ - products or services aimed at older people is growing

As the aging population rises so does demand for healthcare, leisure, travel industries

By 2040 spending by people aged 65+ is expected to rise by 68% in the UK

What does migration mean

The movement of people from one place to another either permanently or temporarily for reasons such as work education or escaping conflict

What does globalisation mean

The increasing interconnectedness of the world through trade, tech, culture, and movement of people

4 impacts of migration

Family life

Exploitation

Public services

Identity

How does migration affect family life

Contributes to family diversity & introduces new family structures - e.g. British-Asian extended family

Often leads to family separation (one or both parents migrate for work leaving children in the care of relatives)

How are migrants (women) exploited

Take up roles in domestic work, caregiving, sex work - reinforces traditional gender norms & stereotypes onto poorer non-western women

Because - many western women are in paid work, men are reluctant to take on a fair share of housework, & gov haven’t provided adequate childcare - families rely on migrant women to fill the gap

Hochschild - this has led to a global transfer of domestic & emotional labour

How does migration affect public services

Can put a strain on housing, healthcare, schools due to overcrowding

Many are of working age - lowers dependency ratio

Often fill essential roles - 16% of NHS staff

Pay taxes → contribute to public funds for welfare, healthcare, education

How does migration affect identity

Increases cultural diversity, bringing new languages, food, traditions to its host society. E.g. Diwali

However, migrants may face challenges integrating into their host societies due to language barriers, cultural differences & discrimination. E.g. rise of islamophobia