wH

Avignon

The city in France that was the seat of the papacy from 1309 to 1377.

Great Schism

A split within the Catholic Church that lasted from 1378 to 1417, leading to multiple claims to papal authority.

John Wycliffe

An English theologian and reformer who challenged the Church's teachings and called for the translation of the Bible into English.

Jan Hus

A Czech religious reformer whose writings influenced the Protestant Reformation.

bubonic plague

A deadly infectious disease that devastated Europe in the 14th century, also known as the Black Death.

Hundred Years’ War

A series of conflicts between England and France from 1337 to 1453.

Joan of Arc

A French peasant girl who led the French army to victory over the English at Orléans during the Hundred Years’ War.

lineage

Descent from a common ancestor; often refers to family ties that are recognized in societies.

stateless societies

Communities organized without a centralized government or defined state.

patrilineal

A system in which lineage is traced through the father's side.

matrilineal

A system in which lineage is traced through the mother's side.

Maghrib

The western part of the Arab World, specifically the region of North Africa.

Almoravids

A Berber Muslim dynasty that emerged in North Africa and spread into Spain.

Almohads

A group of Berber Muslims who succeeded the Almoravids in North Africa and Spain.

potlatch

A ceremonial feast among indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest, involving the giving of gifts.

Anasazi

An ancient Native American culture that lived in the present-day southwestern United States.

pueblo

A term for towns built by Native Americans in the southwestern United States, often made of adobe.

Mississippian

A Native American culture that flourished in the southeastern United States from about 800 AD to 1600 AD.

Iroquois

A group of historically powerful northeastern Native American tribes known for their confederation.

totem

A natural object or animal that serves as a symbol for a group of people, often in indigenous cultures.

Tikal

An ancient Mayan city located in present-day Guatemala.

glyph

A symbolic figure or character used in writing systems, particularly in Mayan scripts.

codex

An ancient manuscript in book form, especially one that includes illustrations.

Popol Vuh

The creation myth of the Maya, detailing their gods and the origin of humanity.

obsidian

A volcanic glass used by ancient cultures to make tools and weapons.

Quetzalcoatl

The feathered serpent deity worshiped by several Mesoamerican cultures.

Triple Alliance

The alliance between the Aztec Empire and the neighboring city-states of Texcoco and Tlacopan.

Montezuma II

The last Aztec ruler before the fall of the empire to Spanish conquistadors.

Pachacuti

The ninth Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire, known for his expansionist policies and reforms.

ayllu

A traditional form of community in Andean society defined by kinship.

mita

A labor system in the Inca Empire where communities were required to work on public projects.

quipu

An ancient Incan device for recording information using strings and knots.

Renaissance

A cultural movement in Europe from the 14th to 17th centuries characterized by a revival of art, literature, and learning.

humanism

An intellectual movement during the Renaissance that emphasized human potential and achievements.

secular

Concerned with worldly rather than spiritual matters; not affiliated with a religious organization.

patron

A person who supports artists, writers, or musicians, often financially.

perspective

An artistic technique used to create the illusion of depth and space on a flat surface.

vernacular

The everyday language spoken by ordinary people in a particular region.

utopia

An imagined place or state of things in which everything is perfect.

William Shakespeare

An English playwright and poet, often regarded as one of the greatest writers in the English language.

Johann Gutenberg

Inventor of the printing press, which revolutionized the dissemination of information in the 15th century.

indulgence

A grant by the Catholic Church that could reduce punishment for sins, often criticized during the Reformation.

Reformation

A religious movement in the 16th century aimed at reforming the Catholic Church and leading to the establishment of Protestantism.

Lutheran

A branch of Protestant Christianity founded on the teachings of Martin Luther.

Protestant

A member of a Christian church founded on the principles of the Reformation, opposing the Catholic Church.

Peace of Augsburg

A treaty that allowed German princes to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism in 1555.

annul

To declare invalid or void, often used in the context of marriage.

Anglican

Relating to the Church of England or churches derived from it.

geocentric theory

An astronomical theory that places Earth at the center of the universe.

Scientific Revolution

A period of significant advancements in scientific thought during the 16th and 17th centuries.

heliocentric theory

An astronomical theory proposing that the Sun is at the center of the universe.

Galileo Galilei

An Italian astronomer and physicist who made significant contributions to modern science.

scientific method

A systematic approach to investigation and experimentation used in scientific research.

Isaac Newton

An English mathematician and physicist who formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority.

social contract

A theory that individuals consent to form a government to protect their rights.

John Locke

An English philosopher who argued for natural rights and government by consent.

philosophe

French for 'philosopher'; referring to intellectuals of the Enlightenment.

Voltaire

A French Enlightenment writer known for his advocacy of civil liberties and separation of church and state.

Montesquieu

A French philosopher known for his theory of the separation of powers in government.

Rousseau

A French philosopher who believed in the social contract and the importance of the general will.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An early feminist thinker who advocated for women's rights and education.

Declaration of Independence

The document asserting the separation of the American colonies from Great Britain, adopted in 1776.

Thomas Jefferson

The principal author of the Declaration of Independence and the third President of the United States.

checks and balances

A system that ensures that no one branch of government becomes too powerful.

federal system

A system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution, guaranteeing individual rights.