Psych Chapters 6-10

How do psychologists define memory?

The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

What is the first step in memory?

Encoding.

What is the second step in memory?

Storage.

What is the third step in memory?

Retrieval.

What does encoding mean in memory?

Converting information into a form that can be stored.

What is selective attention?

Focusing on one thing, such as listening to your teacher.

What is divided attention?

Focusing on multiple tasks, such as texting while watching television.

What is sustained attention?

Focusing for a long time, such as while taking an exam.

What is shallow processing?

Focusing on appearance or sound, producing weaker memory.

What is deep processing?

Focusing on meaning, producing stronger memory.

What is elaboration?

Adding meaning by connecting new information to existing knowledge.

What is an example of elaboration using examples?

Creating examples that illustrate new information.

What is an example of self-reference elaboration?

Relating information to yourself.

What is an example of story-based elaboration?

Creating stories to connect information.

What is an example of mnemonic elaboration?

Using memory aids to organize information.

What is storage?

Keeping encoded information in memory over time.

What does the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory propose?

Information moves through sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

What is sensory memory?

Brief storage of sensory information before processing or disappearance.

What is echoic memory?

A sensory memory for sounds.

What is iconic memory?

A sensory memory for visual images.

What is short-term memory?

Memory holding a small amount of information for about 15-30 seconds.

How does chunking increase short-term memory capacity?

It groups information into meaningful units.

What is working memory?

A system that actively holds and processes information.

What does the central executive do?

It controls attention.

What information does the phonological loop handle?

Verbal and auditory information.

What information does the visuospatial sketchpad handle?

Visual and spatial information.

What is long-term memory?

Memory storage lasting long periods with virtually unlimited capacity.

What is explicit memory?

Conscious memory for information and experiences.

What is semantic memory?

Explicit memory for facts, such as Ohio's capital being Columbus.

What is episodic memory?

Explicit memory for personal events, such as a birthday.

What is implicit memory?

Unconscious memory that influences behavior.

What is procedural memory?

Implicit memory for skills, such as riding a bike.

What is priming?

Prior exposure influences later responses.

How can priming affect word recognition?

Seeing "doctor" can help you recognize "nurse."

What is retrieval?

Bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.

What is the serial position effect?

Better memory for the first and last items.

What is the primacy effect?

Better memory for the first items in a list.

What is the recency effect?

Better memory for the last items in a list.

What is recall?

Remembering information without cues.

What is recognition?

Identifying information with cues.

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Retrieval is best when conditions match those during encoding.

What is an example of context-dependent memory?

Remembering better in the same classroom where you studied.

What is an autobiographical memory?

A memory of personal life events.

What is an autobiographical memory example?

Remembering your first day of high school.

What is a flashbulb memory?

A vivid memory of an emotional event.

What is a flashbulb memory example?

Remembering where you were during major news.

What is motivated forgetting?

Unconsciously forgetting upsetting memories.

What is an example of motivated forgetting?

Forgetting details of a traumatic event.

What is decay as a cause of forgetting?

Memories fade over time if not used.

What is interference as a cause of forgetting?

Competing information disrupts memory.

What is retrieval failure?

Inability to access stored information.

What is encoding failure?

Failure to process information into memory.

What does Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve show?

Most forgetting occurs soon after learning, then levels off.

What is interference theory?

Forgetting occurs when memories compete with one another.

What is proactive interference?

Old information interferes with new information.

What is a proactive interference example?

An old password interferes with learning a new password.

What is retroactive interference?

New information interferes with old information.

What is a retroactive interference example?

A new password makes you forget the old password.

What is decay theory?

Memories fade over time when they are not used.

What is a tip-of-the-tongue experience?

Knowing a name but being unable to say it.

What does a tip-of-the-tongue experience show?

The memory is stored but temporarily inaccessible.

What is amnesia?

Memory loss.

What is anterograde amnesia?

Inability to form new memories.

What is retrograde amnesia?

Inability to remember old memories.

Who was Marigold Linton, Ph.D.?

A psychologist who researched autobiographical memory.

What educational cause did Marigold Linton advocate for?

Native American education.

What was a notable achievement of Marigold Linton?

She was the first Native American woman to earn a psychology Ph.D.

Cognition

Mental processes used to acquire, process, store, and use knowledge.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

Computer systems performing tasks that typically require human intelligence.

How can AI be useful?

It can analyze data, automate tasks, and support decisions.

Thinking

Manipulating information mentally to form judgments, solve problems, and make decisions.

Concepts

Mental categories grouping similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Why are concepts helpful?

They organize information and allow faster recognition and reasoning.

Prototype model

A concept is represented by its most typical or ideal example.

Prototype example: bird

A robin is a typical bird prototype; a penguin is less typical.

Problem solving

Finding a way to overcome an obstacle or reach a goal.

Reasoning

Using information to draw conclusions or make inferences.

Decision making

Choosing among alternatives after evaluating possible outcomes.

Subgoals

Smaller intermediate goals that help achieve a larger goal.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution when followed correctly.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut that is fast but may produce errors.

Functional fixedness

Difficulty seeing an object as useful in an unfamiliar way.

Functional fixedness example

Failing to use a coin as a screwdriver because it is seen only as money.

Inductive reasoning

Drawing a general conclusion from specific observations.

Deductive reasoning

Applying a general rule to reach a specific conclusion.

Loss aversion

The tendency to fear losses more strongly than equivalent gains.

Loss aversion example

Keeping a poor investment to avoid accepting a financial loss.

Confirmation bias

Seeking or favoring information that supports existing beliefs.

Confirmation bias example

Reading only news sources that agree with your political views.

Hindsight bias

Believing an event was predictable after learning its outcome.

Hindsight bias example

Claiming you knew who would win after a game ends.

Availability heuristic

Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.

Availability heuristic example

Fearing flying after seeing repeated news coverage of a plane crash.

Base rate neglect

Ignoring overall statistical frequency when judging a specific case.

Base rate neglect example

Assuming a positive rare-disease test means disease is highly likely.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging category membership by similarity to a typical example.

Representativeness heuristic example

Assuming a quiet person is a librarian rather than a salesperson.

Critical thinking

Carefully evaluating evidence, assumptions, and reasoning before reaching conclusions.

Mindfulness

Nonjudgmental awareness of present thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

Creative thinking

Producing original and useful ideas or solutions.