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Polarity
Water has a partial positive charge on hydrogen atoms and a partial negative charge on oxygen, making it polar.
Hydrogen Bonding
Attraction between the positive hydrogen of one water molecule and the negative oxygen of another.
Cohesion
Water molecules stick to each other.
Adhesion
Water molecules stick to other surfaces.
High Specific Heat
Water can absorb a lot of heat without changing temperature quickly.
Solvent Properties
Water dissolves many substances, making it a "universal solvent."
Density
Ice is less dense than liquid water, which is why it floats.
Elements
Made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
Monosaccharides
Single sugar units like glucose.
Disaccharides
Two sugar units linked, like sucrose (table sugar).
Polysaccharides
Long chains of sugars like starch or cellulose.
Function (carbohydrates)
Provide energy (e.g., glucose) and structure (e.g., cellulose in plants).
lipids
Fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids.
Triglycerides
Made of one glycerol and three fatty acids.
Phospholipids
Make up cell membranes, with hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads.
Function (protien)
Store energy, provide insulation, and form cell membranes.
Saturated Fats
No double bonds between carbon atoms, solid at room temperature.
Unsaturated Fats
Have double bonds, liquid at room temperature
Amino Acids
Building blocks of proteins.
Peptide Bonds
Link amino acids together.
Protein Structure
Primary: Sequence of amino acids.
Secondary: Folding into alpha helices or beta sheets.
Tertiary: 3D shape of the protein.
Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains joined together.
Function (enzymes)
Enzymes (speed up reactions), hormones, and transport molecules.
Enzymes
Proteins that catalyze reactions, affected by temperature, pH, and substrate concentration.
DNA
Double helix made of nucleotides; stores genetic information.
RNA
Single-stranded nucleic acid; helps in protein synthesis.
Nucleotides
Made of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base
Function (lipids)
DNA carries genetic code; RNA converts it into proteins.
Benedict's Test for Reducing Sugars
Principle: Benedict's solution reacts with reducing sugars and changes color.
Procedure: Add Benedict's solution to the sample and heat it.
Results: Color changes from blue to green, yellow, or red indicate the presence of reducing sugars.
Catalase Experiment
Catalase: An enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) into water and oxygen.
Reaction: 2 H₂O₂ → 2 H₂O + O₂.
Experiment Setup: Use potato or liver as a source of catalase, and measure the oxygen produced when hydrogen peroxide is added.
