Chinese Revolution

Sun Yixian/Sun Yat Sen

Leader inspired by Taiping peasant rebels, sought to overthrow Qing dynasty.

• ‘father of the nation’

Three Principles of the People

Nationalism (Minzu), Democracy (Minquan), and People's Livelihood (Minsheng) to reform China

Minzu (Nationalism)

China is the China of the Chinese

• overthrow the Imperial Manchu and allow the Hans to rule themselves

Minquan (Democracy)

Staged transition into democracy

• 3 years dictatorship

• 6 years tutelage

• Elections

Minsheng (Peoples Liveliehood)

Improve social welfare

• Land ownership

• Tax reform

Xinhai Revolution

Overthrew Qing dynasty, established Republic of China with Sun Yat Sen as provisional president.

• Oct 1911, a bomb mistakenly explodes in a revolutionary groups headquarters, they sieze Wuchang within 3 days and within 6 weeks 2/3 of Wuhan declaring independence from the Qing Dynasty

Jan 1st 1911

China proclaims itself a republic

Yuan Shikai

• Retired 1909 but called back in 1911 to suppress the revolution. he agrees on the condition he is appointed Prime Minister

• Turns on the Qing in the Xinhai revolution

• In 1912 he declares he will force Pu Yi’s abdication in exchange for presidency

• Sun Yet Sen steps down and Shikai is sworn in

Shikai’s presidency

• Praised by foreign powers

• Keen to ensure presidency is a powerful position

• Consolidate power and establish a new dynasty through appointing supporters and dissolving the government, creating a virtual dictatorship

Guomingdang (GMD)/Kuomintang (KMT)

• Sun Yat Sen was disappointed with Shikai for ignoring his 3 principles, he was appointed railway minister and Tongmenghui matters fell to Song Jiaoren

• GMD won parliamentary elections, war born after Song formed alliances with smaller parties

• Constantly pushed for a reduction in Shikai’s powers

Second Revolution

Jiangxi province declares independence, Shikai’s army puts down the rebels quickly

• Shikai bans GMD & dissolved parliament

Glorious Constitution

Shikai essentially wanted to extend the presidential term, nominate a successor and increase powers. Proposing a new constitution on the 1st of May 1914

Shikai’s Dynasty

Sought to start a new imperial rule with himsefl as emperor in 1916

-Supporters were disgusted, many provinces rebelled and declared independence

He was forced to give up his self appointed rule by March. He died in June and was desserted by followers

• Old parliament re-established

• Shikai weakened government power and China was divided between old ruling generals who dominated provinces, leading to the warlord period

• As Shikai died without a successor, China had no central authority- power was left in the hands of provincial leaders

Warlord Period

Marked by economic instability and rise of warlords after Yuan's death.

• Warlords promised stability and protection, an attractive career option for young men

• Warlord wealth flourished via exploitation, corruption and banditry

• Warlords printed excess money leading to hyperinflation

• imposed high taxes

• The government remained in Beijing but exerted no control

New Culture Movement

Criticized traditional Chinese ideas, led to May 4th Movement in 1919. Questioned Confucianism and resented foreign powers, also inspired resistance.

• 3000 students protest at Tianmamen square

• Anti-imperalist movement against warlordism and imperialism

• Protest against the treaty of Versailles, which saw China’s interest overlooked and territories handed to Japan

• 100,000 workers went on strike to demand higher wages

GMD post Shikai

Sun Yat Sen returns to China in 1921 and re-established GMD- plans to raise a revolutionary army then staged democracy

• Meets w/ comintern who suggests they work with the newly formed CCP

Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

Formed in 1921, collaborated with GMD. Sought to raise class consciousness.

• Orignally funded by Comintern

First United Front (FUF)

1923, aims to unify China and opposed warlords

• Led by Sun Yat Sen & Zhou Enlai

Jiang Jieshi

• Follower of SYS

• Appointed commander of GMD armies in 1924

• Takes over GMD following SYS’s death in 1925

• Ruled as a ruthless dictator, uninterested in the 3 principles of the people

CCP in the FUF

• Comintern lacks faith in the CCP

• Promises land reforms to gain peasant support and highlights that the Huangpu army does not loot

Northern Expedition

Military campaign led by Jieshi and launched by the GMD to unify China

• National Revolutionary Army unified CCP and GMD, disciplined and had high morale

• Northern Warlord Armies were ill trained and ill equipped but had 750,000 troops compared to the NRA’s 145,000

• Warlords bribed into joining GMD

• GMDs left wing and the CCP established a government in Wuhan however, Jieshi became conservative and suspicious of the CCP

Shanghai Massacre

Jieshi’s troops enter Shanghai in March 1927 as the CCP helps take control of the city. Jeishi turns to the ‘green gang’ to solve his problem, in exchange for their immunity and rights to sell opium

• CCP threatened Jiang because strikers outnumbered his troops (Fenby)

• Gang leader organised 2000 man militia and executes around 10,000 communists, decimating the CCP

The White Terror

CCP purge spreads, 40,000 communists killed. The comintern breaks ties and the CCP is forced underground or hides in rural cities

• CCP responds with failed uprisings against GMD (ex. autumn uprising)

• CCP re-establishes itself in provincial areas

Nanjing Decade

1928-1937

• China unified under GMD rule

• Jieshi inaugerated in 1928

• GMD announces 6 year tutelage will begin

• All major government positions held by GMD

• Nationalist government is internationally recognised

• Government short of funds, spending more than it had

Achievements of Jieshi’s presidency

• railways expanded

• international respect gained

• income tax system established

• new factories built

• cotton industry developed greatly

Failures of Jeishi’s presidency

• Lacked funds

• Hyperinflation

• Heavy taxes (80-90% of crops)

• Lost peasants support as it had no attempt for land reform

• Did NOT refuse Japanese occupation, loss of support

• Heavily corrupt

New Life Movement

In 1934, Jieshi and his wife attempt to change social attitude and re-embrace Confucius values.

• Built on 96 rules such as combing hair, wearing hats straight and banning public spitting

• People found the campaign intrusive and hypocritical

• GMD pushed the movement heavily

• Also targeted communists, unionists and journalists killing 300,000

• Jieshi admired fascism and incorporated political police

Mao Zedong

• Born to wealthy peasants

• Joined CCP 1921

• Not rigidly Marxist and adapted it to his own views

• Believed peasants were the driving force of the revolution and revolution would start in the country not city

• Wanted CCP to be subordinate to the masses, those being the peasants

Jiangxi Soviet

Following failed uprisings the CCP members, Enlai and Zedong moved into the Jiangxi region, it was remote and allowed the army to survive

• Mao was JS Chairman

• Mao improved on warfare tactics and disciplined the RA

• Mao and Zhu De implemented radical land reform and changes

Jiangxi Soviet Land Reforms

• pragmatic moderate land reform allowing middle-level peasants to be satisifed

• banned excessive rent

• cruel and exploitive land lords executed

• land was not redistributed to all peasants

Mao’s loss of influence

CCP members were distrusting of his beliefs in peasants being a revolutionary class. Enlai replaced him as commissar in 1932

Red Army

• ‘army for the people’

• soldiers educated in communist policy

Red Army Code of Conduct

3 rules

• Prompt obedience to orders

• No confiscation from poor peasants

• Prompt delivery of confiscated goods for disposal

Fifth Encirclement Campaign

Jieshi was fearful Jiangxi would become a revolutionary base and launched attacks

• 4 campaigns failed

• in the final assault Jieshi had better resources and strategy

• Jieshi had an army of 1 million troops, heavy artillery and 200 planes

• Drew up counter strategies w/ German military

• Nationalists drove CCP out of Jianxi, triggered Long March

Causes of the Long March

• GMD had military superiority and more resources

• Conflict between Mao and Enlai’s ideals meant ideological friction between the pair and disunity of CCP

• GMD destroyed CCP bases, CCP needed to survive

Long March

CCP's retreat led by Mao Zedong from 1934 to 1935

Zunyi Conference

Mao gains influence by criticising Otto Braun, the army trusts Mao because of his previous work, military victories in the following months grew his authority

• pivotal in Mao gaining respect and power

Jinsha River

crossing the river was a feat of the RA as they crossed the river under enemy fire allowing them to escape the GMD and continue the march

Battle of Shangganling

October 1935

• Near the end of the march RA faces fierce attacks but breaks through enemy lines

Long March consolidated Mao’s power because…

…it solidified leadership, unified the party, helped Mao gain support and push propaganda, shaped CCP ideology

Long term Long March impacts

• gained peasant support

• reaffirmed belief of peasantry being the driving force of the revolution

• allowed CCP to preach its ideology message to the peasants

• spread propaganda

• became a symbol of resistance, determination and sacrifices

• shaped international perceptions of the CCP

• helped CCP gain worker connections through assistance in safehouses in Wuhan and Shanghai

• however, the CCP needed to rebuild since it lost all bases and establishes

Yan'an Soviet

Established by CCP, implemented reforms and shaped Mao's ideology

• villages adopted CCP systems of land redistribution, education etc

• Cadres reminded to ‘serve the people’ which increased popular support and party members grew to 1 million by 1945 and the RA increased to 860,000

Yan’an Economic Reform

• land reforms: land taken from landlords and redistributed, eased in 1937 and only surplus land was taken

• tax reforms: loan and mortgage interest reduced from 18% to 1.5%

Yan’an Social Reform

• evening schools for women and children

• women shelters, support for abused women and poor women

• infant mortality dropped as midwives were educated on sterile birthing techniques

Thought Rectification Movement

• Mao felt party needed more discipline

• Cadres expected to publicly denounce failings

• Began as a discussion program and evolved into a self-criticism program

• Party members tortured, executed or imprisoned

• Cemented Mao as undisputed leader

• Anything Mao disliked was censored

• Once backlash formed Mao shifted blame to cadres and leaders, ordering an end to torture tactics

• Once his authority was soldified he halted the movement

• Concealed the brutality of the movement by promoting the ‘Yan’an spirit’

Xian Incident

Jieshi wanted to crush the CCP and went to Xi’an to oversee a campaign however he was arrested by warlords.

• Enlai came to negotiate on behalf of the communists as the warlords wanted to execute him

• Moscow asserted that only Jieshi could lead China united and so he returned to Nanjing a hero with a promise to end the blockade of Yan’an and enter an alliance with the CCP

Sino-Japanese War

Japanese invasion of China from 1937 to 1945

• The Marco Polo incident on July 7th 1937 was a full-scale Japanese invasion which convinced Jieshi to form the previously promised 2nd United Front

Second United Front

The GMD had poor morale, which highlighted inept leadership. Generals lost interest in driving out the Japanese because they knew USA would do it for them

• Jieshi wanted to retreat and was seen as cowardly

• CCP support increased because the CCP wanted to ‘march North’ and fight the Japanese

• SUF benefited the CCP because it legitimised the Yan’an Soviet, increased membership & support, popularised the RA and gained more support for CCP as they were recognised as a force resisting occupation

The Rape of Nanjing

Mid-December 1937, an infamous account of brutality against China and the capture of the GMD capital

• Japanese soldiers went on killing sprees, raping 20,000 women and then murdering them

• Soldiers murdered patients in hospitals

• Soldiers photographed their actions

• Used Chinese prisoners as bayonet practice

New Fourth Army Incident

Despite the common enemy being Japan, CCP and Nationalists struggled for power

• 80,000 Nationalists broke the SUF by attacking the CCP’s new fourth army headquarters

• Of the 9,000 CCP inside, they were taken captive, killed or went missing

• Allowed CCP to present themselves as martyred patriots

End of Sino-Japanese War

USA drops the atomic bomb on Japan and Russian troops invade from the North and supress Japanese forces, who are ordered to surrender to Jieshi

• American Advisors unable to broker a peace agreement between Mao and Jieshi, China left in a state of war

GMD in the Civil War

• Nationalists start w/ considerable advantages, larger military, more and more equipment

• Jieshi’s forces occupied major cities and railway lines

• Capture Yan’an by March 1947

• Troops underconfident

• GMD keeps land, loses men

• Corrupt

• Poor leadership

• Lost popularity for not resisting Japanese occupation

• Many deserted the GMD

• Worn down and frustrated

CCP in the Civil War

• Disciplined and high morale

• Brave

• Did not engage in direct combat, used guerilla tactics

• Mobile

• Confident in battle

• Peasants joined CCP mainly due to land reforms

• RA renamed People’s Liberation Army

People's Republic of China

Established on October 1, 1949, under Mao Zedong's leadership.

• The remaining GMD joined CCP

• PLA troops took Beijing

• PLA took Nanjing

National People's Congress

A parliamentary-like body responsible for enacting and amending laws in China during the period of consolidating power (1949-1953)

Marriage Laws

Laws introduced in 1950 that enforced gender equality, allowing women to choose spouses, implementing no-fault divorce, banning polygamy, foot binding, and child marriage, abolishing feudal marriage, and ensuring equal pay and maternity benefits for women.

Agrarian Reforms

Land redistribution from wealthy landlords to impoverished peasantry, aiming to overturn traditional power structures in villages.

• Radical

• ‘Fanshen’ or turning over

• Speak Bitterness Campaigns

• 800,000 to 5 million killed

• ‘wedded’ peasants to the revolution by actively involving them

Mass Campaigns 1950

Social, political, and economic movements aimed at eliminating "enemies" of the revolution and promoting active participation and coercion.

• Thought Reform Campaigns

• Sanfan

• Wufan

Chengfen

A classification system that categorized people into "good, middle, and bad" classes based on background, occupation, and commitment to revolution.

Health & Welfare Campaigns

Life expectancy increases from 36 to 57 by 1957

• Campaigns for public cleanliness

• Opium addicts forced into rehab

• Sterile birthing techniques thought to midwives

• Campaigns against spitting drop tuberculosis (TB) cases

First Five-Year Plan

An economic policy from 1953-1957 focusing on infrastructure, heavy industries, and development, but leading to economic imbalances.

• USSR grants China $300 million loan

• China produced its own trucks, aeroplanes etc for the first time

• Soviet loan conditions meant China paid back more than it earned

• Mao declared all private enterprise would be nationalised by 1957

Staged Collectivisation

Gradual collective farming

• Mutual Aid Teams: 6-10 families sharing tools and animals

• Lower Agricultural Cooperatives: 20-40 families working together, peasants retained land ownership but earned more if they had more land

• Higher Agricultural Cooperatives: 100-300 families worked together, ownership of land became collective, peasants paid only for their labour

Stagnation

Gradual collective farming led to resistance due to perceived exploitation, resulting in stagnation in agricultural production

• More food shortages and hunger

• Peasants only kept 5% of land

• Debates ensue between Mao and Liu Shaoqi

The Gao Gang Affair

Key supporter of Mao during debates. Mao shared his frustrations with Gao who mistook it to plot against Shaoqi

• Mao turns on Gao once this is revealed, accusing him of creating division in the CCP

• Gao is arrested and imprisoned

• Gao is purged from the CCP

• Gao kills himself

• Demonstrates Mao’s leadership style and showed that following him was dangerous, but strengthened his authority

Collectivisation Debates

• Internal disagreements on collectivization, leading to tension within the CCP.

• Zedong's authority strengthened after the Gao Gang affair and the High Tide of 1955

Eight Party Congress

Limited Zedong's cult of personality, leading to a new leadership team headed by Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping

Hundred Flowers Campaign

A campaign encouraging freedom of expression that ultimately led to the Anti-Rightist Campaign, silencing critics and intellectuals.

• Left Mao’s position unchallenged and silenced criticism of the regime

Great Leap Forward

An ambitious attempt from 1958-1961 to boost China's economy and shift to a collectivized society, resulting in economic disasters, famines, and millions of deaths.

• Implementation of communes, failed steel production, Lysenkoism in agriculture, and the Four Pests Campaign.

• Mao wanted China to overtake British steel production and catch up with the West

Peoples Communes

Communes averaged 5,000 households

• Private property confiscated

• Land plots, tools, buildings relinquished to the government

• Wages paid in ‘work points’

• Large nurseries for children

• Education was the responsibility of communes

Steel Production

• An effort to create 750,000 'backyard' steel furnaces involving around 100 million workers resulted in the abandonment of fields.

• They melted farming tools and woks to make 'crude steel'.

• Peasants were motivated with unlimited food and entertainment while producing steel

• Regrettably, the campaign failed. The smelting process turned the tools into low-grade and unusable steel scraps. Also, crop planting decreased by 9% during this period

Lysenkoism

• Soviet Scientist Lysenko claimed crops could grow anywhere if looked after correctly.

• The CCP sought to boost yields without relying on expensive imported fertilisers or tractors and encouraged farmers to use methods based on Lysenko’s theories.

• Deep ploughing - peasants ploughed up to 3m deep to encourage stronger roots and supposedly bring up new fertile soil to the surface.

• This made topsoil infertile by mixing it w/ sand and clay, making this a failed method Close planting - crops of the same type would not compete so could be planted in much higher concentrations.

• However, this ruined countless rice crops

Four Pests Campaign

Chinese people were mobilised in great numbers to kill mosquitos, flies, rats and sparrows.

• An unintended consequence was that while there were less sparrows to cause crop damage, locusts and others increased multiplied and attacked crops. Grain production fell further by 25%

GLF consequences

• Presidency of Liu Shaoqi

• Fact finding missions

• Lushan Plenum

• 3 years bad famine

• Soviet Split

Fact Finding Missions

Mao travelled to the country wanting to know why GLF failed

• Mao visited his Hunan village, hearing minor complaints and affirming GLF needed minor adjustments.

• Peng Duhai, not from Hunan, witnessed severe poverty, starvation, and dire conditions in his home village.

• Peng vowed to report the suffering to Beijing and criticized the GLF publicly during a diplomatic visit to Khrushchev.

Lushan Plenum

• Duhai attempted to meet Zedong before the plenum but resorted to writing a letter.

• Zedong, feeling personally insulted by Duhai's letter, took it negatively due to their friendship.

• Duhai's 'Statement of Opinions' challenged Zedong's ideology, risking Zedong losing face.

• Zedong threatened government overthrow, labeled Duhai 'anti-party,' and purged him, replaced by Lin Biao

The 3 Bad Years Famine

• Communes and Lysenkoism revived

• Grain targets set at 270 million tonnes

• The fact the GLF continued a year after the plenum was the main cause of the man made famine

• Cannibalism widespread

• 300 million died

• Husbands sold wives and daughters into prostitution

CCP famine concealment

• though food supply dwindled China continued to export grain overseas

• China turned down red cross support

• Movement out of affected regions banned

• CCP propaganda continued showing the GLF as good with healthy peasants and thriving fields

Soviet Split

• In June 1959, the Soviets withdrew support from China's nuclear program, leading to a strained relationship

• Public insults were exchanged between Mao Zedong and Khrushchev, each accusing the other of deviating from revolutionary Marxist ideals.

• Zedong accused the Soviets of following a revisionist line, betraying socialist ideals, which he later suggested occurred in China during the mid-1960s.

• The conflict reached its peak in July 1964 when China formally ended diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union

Liu Shaoqi’s Presidency

President in 1959 following Wuhan plenum. He:

• He reduced the size of communes

• allowed private plots

• closed communal kitchens permanently

• mobilised PLA for famine relief

Shaoqi’s economic reform

Shaoqi and Xiaoping engineered China’s recovery from the GLF because

• Crops were redirected to famine regions

• Peasant marketplaces were reintroduced

• Grain exports halted and grain imported

• Backyard steel furnaces scrapped

• 12% of collectivised land given back to families

• Domestic grain production increased from 193 million tonnes

7000 Cadres Conference

Central committee endorses the ‘3 privates and one guarantee’

• It was decided the famine was 70% human-made and 30% natural

• Under the 3 privates peasants could farm small plots, produce handicrafts and sell their products at markets

• Shaoqi denounced Mao’s methods and the GLF

• Mao offered self-criticism but stressed that the policies and actions of the CCP were a collective responsibility

• Shaoqi assumed de facto leadership of the CCP

Mao’s concern with Cadres

• Noted increasing confidence and bureaucratic manner of provincial cadres.

• Warned of corruption and negligence undermining revolutionary values.

Socialist Education Movement

• Campaign to stamp out corruption and promote socialist values.

• Focus on the 'four cleanups' (political, economic, ideology, and organizational fields).

• Mao wanted to unleash a mass campaign as he believed the CCP and Shaoqi were heading down the ‘capitalist road’

Lin Biao

Strong supporter of Zedong, instrumental in strengthening Zedong’s cult of personality and PLA.

• Compiled the ‘little red book’ a compilation of Mao’s sayings for soldiers, they were later known as weapons of mass indoctrination

Emulation Campaigns

Introduced 'learn from' propaganda, encouraging emulation of socialist values

Cultural Revolution

Initiated by Mao and Jing Qing from 1966-1976 to combat capitalist tendencies, involving the Red Guard movement and targeting intellectuals, CCP cadres, and leaders.

Hai Rui

A 16th century play gained traction in China. Though Mao initially enjoyed it, the play was later pointed out as an allegory for fall of Peng Duhai

The Four Olds

• Old Ideas

• Old Customs

• Old Habits

• Old Culture

Red Guard Movement

• Emerged as an expression of teenage rebellion and political activism.

• Engaged in attacks on perceived threats and the 'Four Olds'.

• Big Character posters went up in Beijing University urging students to rebel against teachers

• Quickly became violent

• Mobilised

• ‘Die fighting for Chairman Mao’

• Wore Kakhi uniforms in support of Mao

Mao’s Good Swim in the Yangtze River

Symbolic display of strength and health, reinforcing his cult of personality

The 16 Points

Shaoqi’s authority diminished and Mao ordered the party teams to withdraw from universities and allow the RGs to continue with violent activities

• Outlined the goals of the Cultural Revolution, targeting those taking the capitalist road

• Shaoqi demoted and Lin Biao promoted to second in charge

Bombard the headquarters!

Mao’s support for the Red Guards’ activities in attacking 'old' elements

• Shaoqi and Xiapoing denounced

• RGs push Xiaoping’s son out of a window and attack Shaoqi’s wife

• RGs urged by Jing Qing and Lin Biao to target CCP figures

Key Targets of the GPCR

• Intellectuals

• CCP Cadres and Leaders

January Storm

• Rival rebel groups caused chaos, resulting in the Shanghai Peoples Commune's formation.

• The conflict led to widespread confusion among rebel groups and party authorities.

• To manage the situation, a directive established three-in-one revolutionary committees to take over leadership when existing authorities were ousted.

• Zhou Enlai and Mao restricted travel for RGs

Fall of Lin Biao

Despite early support, Mao turned against Lin Biao

• Him and his family died in a plane crash trying to flee to the USSR

• Denunciations of Biao continued even after his death