IB Psych Paper I

Psychology

the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes (cognition)

what are (examples of) mental processes

-thinking
-decision making
-memory
-language
-problem solving/critical thinking

what are behaviours

observable actions

define MRIs as a technique to study the brain

Magnetic Resonance Imaging
uses magnetic radio waves to map the structures of the brain thru mapping activity of H molecs in brain tissues
-can create 3d of 2d images or slices of brain structures

what are MRIs used to detect

nerve injury
tumors
infection
bleeding
strokes

pixel counting (MRI)

quantification of volume/area of brain structures by
counting pixels in the MRI produced image

voxel based morphometry (VBM)

measures DENSITY of gray matter in brain

localisation of function (LoF)

diff parts of the brain relating to a specific func
-emotions, thoughts, beh all originating from a specific location
-damage to these parts of the brain leads to change/diff beh or (partial/complete) loss of func

neuroplasticity

the brain's ability to change its structure in response to (changes in) the environment
-the idea that our brains are sculpted by our experiences

neuron

a type of brain cell that received, processes and transmits information thru electrical + chemical signals

synapse

the junction (or space) where two neurons meet/connect

grey vs white matter

grey = neural cell bodies (dendrites, synapse), mostly in the cortex of the brain
white = axons

neural networks

a series of connected neurons
-develop thru the repitition of behs/actions both genetic and subject to environmental influences

dendritic brainching

process by which dendrites of one neuron branch-out to establish (new) connections w other neurons

synaptic/neural/denderitic pruning

the elimination of unused synapses
= ↑ functionality & efficiency of our brain

what is the correlation betw stimulation and neural connections

POSITIVE CORRELATION
↑ in lvl of stimuli + numerous learning opportunities = ↑ density of neural connections

neurotransmitter

electro-chemical messenger carrying message thru neural networks, across synaptic clefts by stimulating dendrites

examples of neurotransmitters (NTs)

-acetylcholine (ACh)
-serotonin
-dopamine

what type of NT is ACh

excitatory NT

what beh is ACh related to

mem consolidation
(encoding of semantic & spatial mem)

memory consolidation

moving of memrories from short term memory → short term mem

non-psychology related functions of ACh

-activation of muscles
-breathing
-attention
-arousal
-motivation regulation

agonist

a chemical that amplifies the effects of a NT by binding to the NTs receptor site on the post-synaptic neuron

antagonist

a chemical that has a similar structure to a NT to binds to the NT's receptor site on a post-synpatic neuron (blocking the site) — preventing the effects of the NT
-decreases the likelihood that the post-synaptic neuron will fire

what is the antagonist of ACh

scopolamine

effect of scopolamine on ACh

scopolamine binds to ACh receptors on post-synaptic neurons, decreasing the excitatory response that ACh would stimulate

hormone

chemical messenger secreted by glands in the endocrine sys, directly into the bloodstream

• stimulate physiological responses (including brain activity) with effects that last long

testosterone (T)

-prod in the testes (in men) (and ovaries in women)
-men prod ↑ amounts
-correlated with potential for aggression

link T lvl to potetional aggression

when seeing a potential threat we are motivated to defend ourselves

• I lvl relate to ↑ amygdala activation
  …this can lead to more emotional and physical readiness to react aggressively to a threat

(signalling) pheromones

a chemical that is secreted by one individual (or animal) to be received by another individual (animal) causing a physiological change in the receiving individual (of the same species)

how are pheromones are transmitted + detected

transmitte: water, airbourne, ground
detected: through sense of smell (using the vemoronasal, VNO, organ)

one (singalling) pheromone is…

androstadienone (AND)

gene

a short length of DNA that codes for a particular characteristic

Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA)

aka "warrior gene"
a gene that influences enzymes that break down NTs in the synapse

what NTs do the MAOA enzyme break down

serotonin & dopamine

effect of MAOA gene on (child) brain

MAOA-L gene = ↓ production of MAOA enzyme
… in the womb, a baby's brain is over-exposed to serotonin, leading to ↓ serotonin sensitivity later in life

what version of the MAOA gene has the potential for aggression

MAOA-L (producing lower amts of MAOA enzyme = more NTs present to overstimulate the brain)

genetic similarity

relatedness — how similar biologically/genetically people are

heritability

a measure of to what extent differences in behaviour are as a result of differences in genetics

evolution

the cumulative change in heritable characteristics of a particular group of organisms over time

one evo explanation for behaviour

sexual selection
beh: mating behaviour/attraction

natural selection

members of a species w traits/characteristics better suited for survival in a particular environment surviving to reproduce (thus passing their genes onto the their offspring/next generation)

sexual selection

choosing the "best" mate to allow for successful reproduction (producing healthy offspring)

female mating selection based on sex selection

fems want Ms who…
-protective

• risk takers (can handle not succeeding and overcome hardships)
  -older (bc better economic status, more resources to provide for offspring)

male mate selection based on sex selection

Ms want fems who are younger (bc they are more fertile young)

what does schema theory theorise about

how our minds organise information

schema

a cognitive framework
-grp of related pieces of info, knowledge, or mem

origin of schemas

experiences about a particular object, event, person or group

schemas theory (effect)

when we process new info, our brains integrate the new by comparing it w pre-existing schemas
-allows us to predict that what we already know will affect the outcome of our processing of new information

why do we use schemas

allows for the storage of simplified versions of memory and knowledge
-allows for the simplification of processing information

what do schemas influence

how we interpret, organise, communicate and remember information

one model of thinking and decision making

dual processing model (DPM)

system one (S1)

INTUITIVE, automatic, impulsive
-employs heuristics (processes info based on schemas)
-prone to error

heuristic

a mental shortcut/rule of thumb that allows for quick decision making by simplifying complex problems

system two (S2)

RATIONAL, controlled, slower, conscious
-requires effort

reconstructive memory

the necessity of our brains to rebuid (reconstruct) a memory every time we want to remember it

how do we reconstruct mem

• the use of leading questions

• schemas

leading questions

(Loftus defined leading questions as) a Q which either by form or content suggests a desired answer

how do leading Qs and schemas lead to reconstructive mem

a leading Q can cause the activation of a schema, that schema is then used to reconstruct a memory, thus providing the desired answer (which may not be the truth)

why do we reconstruct our mem/use schemas + leading Qs

our brains economise (to save cognitive energy)
…instead to processing everything we sense as a new item we compare it to previous information we already know

Is memory reliable or unreliable, why?

mem is unreliable bc it is reconstructive

State on bias of thinking and decision making

anchoring bias

anchoring bias

(a heuristic) the tendency to rely on the first piece of info given to us when making a decision (thus influencing our following decisions made)

what is one emotion that can affect a cognitive process

!!!!! stress can affect

social identity theory (SIT)

we derive our sense of self based on the groups we identify with/belong to

who proposed (social identity theory)

tajfel & turner

3 mechanisms of SIT

1. social categorisation

2. social identification

3. social comparison
   (+positive distinctiveness)

social categorisation

identifying which groups we belong to (in groups) and ppl that do not belong to our group (out-groups)

• exaggeration of differences

social identification

shaping our identity in relation to the in-groups we belong to
-adopting traits/characteristics of a memb of your in-group
-binding our self-esteem to our in-group(s)

social comparison

directly comparing out-grp to our in-grp

• in-grp bias
• establishment of positive distinctiveness

in-group bias

the tendency to favour members of one's own group

positive distinctiveness

the psychological need/motivation to make one's in-grp appear superior/more unique (in comp to our our-grp)

social cognitive theory (SCT)

beh is learned conscious and/or subconsciously thru:

• direct exp

• watching a model

  • the watched model is rewarded/reinforced

according to SCT in order to learn something what 3 factors must take place

1. attention

2. retention

3. motivation

• potential (to actually do the beh themself)

stereotype

a social schema
-a social perception of an indiv, based on group membership or physical attributes
-can be +ve or -ve perception

relate SIT and formation of stereotypes

out-grp homogeneity says all out-grp members are the same (a generalisation)
-we camke -ve generalisations to boost our self-esteem

formation stereotypes

SIT says thru social comparison

• to save cognitive energy we generalise about ppl (of out-grps)

what is one effect of stereotypes

stereotype threat

stereotype threat

being at risk of confirming/conforming to a self-characteristic
-a -ve stereotype about ones social grp

what does stereotype threat lead to

↓ task performance
even if one does not believe in that particular stereotype

culture

a set of attitudes, behs, and symbols shared by a large grp of ppl
-usually passed from generation to generation

what is the influence of culture on behaviour

one way to examine culture is through the lens of cultural dimensions

cultural groups

groups of ppl characterised by different norms and conventions

state two cultural groups

Temne people of Sierra Leone
Inuit of Baffin island, Nunavut, Canada (hunters + fishers)

cultural dimension

a set of cultural values held by a particular cultural group

state a cultural dimension

individualism vs collectivism

what beh does indiv & collect help us understand

conformity

cultural dimension of the Temne

collectivists (bc rice farmers)

collectivist values

emphasis on
"we"
-value in harmony
-interdependence
-confrontation is avoided
ID is defined by relationships w others

cultural dimension of the Inuint

individualist (hunters & fishers)

individualist values

emphasis on
"i"
-personal responsibility
-competition
-uniqueness is values
-independence
-confrontation
INDIVIDUAL AUTONOMY

normative social influence

a type of influence that cause/lead ppl to conform in order to be liked/fit in

enculturation

how we learn/acquire values & norms of our "home" culture

norms

shared expectations/beliefs of appropriate ways of behaviours and thinking

acculturation

the process of interacting w a new culture and adjusting to life in that new culture

assimilation/assimilate

an individual losing a sense of belonging to another heritage/culture and completely adopts the norms & values of a new culture

4 acculturation strategies

integration
assimilation
separation
marginalisation

emic approach

parts of a study are interpreted to accomodate for the investigated culture
(ex. instructions translated for participants comprehension)

allows for culture-specific concepts to be investigated

protective factor

A protective factor decreases one's risk of acculturative stress (ex. proficiency in english, strong family structure)