Living Environment Regents

homeostasis

the ability to maintain a stable internal environment

metabolism

the sum of all chemical reactions that occur within cells of an organism

organic molecules

molecules that contain skeleton structures of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen

the four organic molecules

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

carbohydrates

basic unit \= glucose

found in grains, vegetables, and fruits

lipids

basic unit \= glycerin and fatty acids

found in nuts, oil, and animal fats

protein

basic unit \= animo acids (20 kinds)

found in meat, egg white, and beans

nucleic acid

basic unit \= nucleotides

small amounts in all foods

the organization of living things

\[smallest] Cells \-- Tissues \-- Organs \-- Organ Systems \-- Organism [biggest]

organelles

parts that make up a cell, they all have at least one specific function

vacuoles

stores waste and water

small in animal cells, large in plant cells

ribosomes

site of protein synthesis

found floating around in the cytoplasm or on the ER

mitochondria

powerhouse of the cell, where energy is made

site of cellular respiration in both plant and animal cells

cellular respiration

glucose + oxygen --\> carbon dioxide + water + energy

chloroplast

site of photosynthesis in plant cells

photosynthesis

sun's energy + carbon dioxide + water --\> glucose + water + oxygen

nucleus

the control center of the cell, where DNA is (the code of life)

cytoplasm

the liquid media that fills the cell

cell membrane

separates the contents of the cell from the outside environment

controls the transport of materials in and out of the cell
(selective permeability)

cellular communication

recognizes and responds to chemical signals by using receptor molecules

passive transport/diffusion

moves from high concentration to low, does not require energy

active transport

moves from low to high concentration, requires energy

human body systems

digestive, circulatory, respiratory, excretory, nervous, endocrine

digestive system

breaks down food into nutrients and sends it into the blood stream

mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum

vacuole and lysosome

circulatory system

carries gasses and nutrients throughout the body

heart, arteries, capillaries, veins

cytoplasm, ER, golgi

respiratory system

exchanges carbon dioxide and oxygen

lungs, alveoli, diaphragm

cell membrane

excretory system

removes waste from the blood and then the body

kidney, bladder, urethra

cell membrane, vacuole

nervous system

fast control of the functioning of all body systems

brain, spinal cord, nerve cells

nucleus

endocrine system

slow control of the functioning of all body systems

pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads

what chemicals are responsible for communication between cells?

horomones, chemicals that are produced by the endocrine glands

chemicals that are produced by nerve cells

respiration

a process used by ALL organisms to produce energy

oxygen is used to burn sugar in order to release energy in the form of ATP

digestion

breaking large molecules down into smaller molecules

transport

movement of materials inside a cell

movement between parts of a multicellular organism

excretion

the removal of all waste produced by the cells of the body

synthesis

building large molecules from smaller ones

enzymes

special proteins that affect the rate of chemical reactions

enzymes are catalysts used in digestion and synthesis

what are enzyme reaction rates affected by?

1. Shape- "Lock and Key Model" if it is the wrong shape it will not work.
2. Temperature- each enzyme works best at a specific temperature
3. Ph\-- each enzyme works best at a specific ph

dynamic equilibrium

a steady state-balance- : HOMEOSTASIS

negative feedback

turns something on or off

positive feedback

continues doing something

skin and circulation systems

the body's primary defense against disease-causing pathogens

surface receptor protein

a molecule found on the cell membrane that the immune system recognizes as either part of the body or an outside invader

antigens

receptor proteins on the membrane of pathogens (germs)

antibodies

special proteins produced by the white blood cells that can be thought of as your body's army to fight diseases

have specific shapes that fit over specific antigens

it blocks communication preventing the germ from reproducing

immunity

body's ability to fight disease

vaccination

a weakened or dead virus that triggers our white blood cells to produce antibodies to fight a specific pathogen

what are the two types of cell division?

mitosis and meiosis

mitotic division

asexual reproduction

ONE cell division 1-\>2

parent cell divides equally to produce 2 identical daughter cells

genetic makeup identical to parent 2n- diploid

function: to produce identical cells used for growth and repair

meiotic division

sexual reproduction

TWO cell divisions 1-\>4

parent cell divides twice to produce either 4 sperm cells or (female) 3 polar bodies + 1 egg (ovum)

genetic makeup 1/2 of the parent cell 1n- haploid

function: to produce sex cells with 1/2 of the species chromosome number

what is mitosis used for?

growth, repair, asexual reproduction

what is meiosis used for?

sexual reproduction

occurs only in male and female gonads to produce gametes

gonads

sex glands (ovaries and testes)

gametes

sex cells (sperm and egg)

another way to say sperm cell

spermatozoa

another way to say egg cell

ova

zygote

fertilized egg

fertilization

fusion of an egg and sperm cell

differentiation

the process that transforms developing cells into specialized cells with different structures and functions

chronological order of gamete to fetus

gamete
(sex cells)

zygote
(fertilized egg)

embryo
(tiny ball made of hundreds of cells, 1st week to 8th week)

fetus
(8th week till birth)

vagina

birth canal

uterus

where the fetus develops

ovaries

female gonads that produce the egg cells and hormones (estrogen)

placenta

the organ that is attached to the baby via the umbilical cord and provides nutrients to the baby and removes waste through process of diffusion

fallopion tubes

where fertilization occurs

flow of the egg cell

ovaries --\> fallopian tubes --\> uterus --\> vagina

testes

the male gonads, which produce sperm and secrete male sex hormones (testoterone)

scrotum

sac that holds the testes

vas deferens

muscular tubes the sperm flows through to mix with several fluids

what is the name for the several fluids?

semen

provides a water environment and nutrients for the sperm

flow of the sperm

testes --\> vas deferens --\> urethra --\> penis

artifical insemination

using sperm from a donor

amniocentesis

removing some of the cells from the amniotic fluid which protects the fetus and analyzing their DNA

karyotype

visual map of chromosomes

can be used to see if the fetus has any chromosomal problems

the parts of a chromosome

chromatid --\> one strand of duplicated DNA

two chromatids --\> sister chromatids

centromere --\> holds the two chromatids together

chromosome --\> tightly packed DNA

cancer

certain genetic mutations in a cell that causes uncontrollable cell division

\

what are some causes of cancer

radiation

heredity

chemicals

viruses

heredity

passing of genetic information from one generation to another through reproduction

DNA

organized in the form of genes

located in the nucleus

two types of reproduction

asexual and sexual reproduction

asexual reproduction

identical cells

1 parent

little genetic variation

mitosis

sexual reproduction

not identical cells

2 parents

much genetic variation

meiosis and fertilization

clones

identical genetic copies

DNA

double stranded helix polymer of nucleotides that contains the genetic code of the individual

nucleotide

basic unit of DNA

phosphate + sugar + base

DNA bases

A, T, C, G

A + T

C + G

RNA

a single stranded polymer that is produced by DNA

RNA bases

A, U, C, G

A + U

C + G

types of RNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

protein synthesis

DNA is stuck in the nucleus so it sends a messenger RNA (mRNA) to the ribosome

the ribosome reads the message and directs the tranfer RNA (tRNA) to bring it amino acid

the ribosome then assembles the amino acids together in the correct order to make a protein

independence of events

"chance doesn't remember"

mutation

any alteration in the sequence of DNA

changes normal message carried by gene

substitution

one base is substituted for another

deletion

one base is left out

addition

one base is added

inversion

bases are switched

gene expression

an organism's environment can affect the way that some genes are expressed

genetic engineering

a technology that humans use to alter the genetic instructions in organisms

gene splicing

cutting DNA and placing it into another organism

restriction enzyme

an enzyme that cuts DNA in specific places

an essential tool in gene splicing as well as in gel-electro phoresis

PROCESS

- electric current carries DNA fragments through gel

- separates them according to size

- smaller pieces carried father from well than larger pieces because they can travel faster

DNA fingerprint from gel phoresis

just like a bar code the more common the bars, the more common heritage or ancestry