psych unit 2

Perception

The process of interpreting sensory information by organizing inputs through schemas and prior knowledge to form meaningful experiences

Top-down processing

Using existing schemas and expectations to interpret familiar stimuli quickly, as opposed to building perception from scratch

Bottom-up processing

Building perception by analyzing unfamiliar stimuli step by step without relying on prior schemas, making it slower but more accurate for novel inputs

Schema

A cognitive framework derived from past experiences that guides perception, similar to how perceptual sets influence immediate expectations

Perceptual set

A temporary readiness to perceive stimuli in a particular way based on expectations or emotions, interacting with schemas to shape interpretation

Selective attention

Focusing on a specific stimulus while filtering out others, which enables the cocktail party effect but can lead to inattentional blindness

Cocktail party effect

The ability to focus auditory attention on a single conversation in a noisy environment, demonstrating selective attention at work

Inattentional blindness

Failure to notice visible stimuli when attention is focused elsewhere, illustrating limits of selective attention

Change blindness

A form of inattentional blindness where observers fail to detect changes in a visual scene, showing how divided attention disrupts perception

Apparent movement

Perceiving motion in still images due to visual cues, an umbrella phenomenon that includes stroboscopic motion and the phi phenomenon

Stroboscopic motion

An illusion of movement created by rapid succession of still frames, as in traditional animation, demonstrating apparent movement

Phi phenomenon

Perception of continuous motion between separate light sources flashing in sequence, another example of apparent movement

Induced movement

An illusion in which a stationary object appears to move because its background is in motion, related to motion parallax

Autokinetic effect

Perception of movement in a stationary point of light against a dark background, occurring when there are no visual anchors

Gestalt psychology

A theory that the mind organizes sensory elements into unified wholes using principles such as figure-ground and closure

Figure-ground

A Gestalt principle where perception separates an object (figure) from its surrounding background (ground) for clarity

Continuation

A Gestalt principle where the eye follows continuous lines or patterns, guiding perception along smooth paths

Closure

A Gestalt principle where the brain fills in missing information to perceive complete shapes, similar to how schemas complete partial inputs

Similarity

A Gestalt principle where objects sharing visual characteristics are grouped together, making anomalies stand out as focal points

Proximity

A Gestalt principle where objects close together are perceived as a single group, aiding fast organization of elements

Symmetry

A Gestalt principle where symmetrical elements are seen as part of the same group, enhancing pattern recognition

Depth perception

The ability to judge distances by integrating binocular cues like convergence and monocular cues such as linear perspective

Binocular cues

Depth cues requiring both eyes, including convergence and retinal disparity, that provide accurate three-dimensional perception

Convergence

A binocular cue where the inward movement of the eyes signals that an object is close, working with retinal disparity for depth

Retinal disparity

A binocular cue where slight differences between each eye’s view yield depth information when compared in the brain

Monocular cues

Depth cues that can be perceived with one eye, such as relative size and shading, used when binocular information is unavailable

Relative size

A monocular cue where objects appearing larger are judged as closer, connecting to size constancy in perceptual constancy

Interposition

A monocular cue where an object blocking another is perceived as nearer, illustrating how visual occlusion conveys depth

Relative height

A monocular cue where objects higher in the field of view seem farther away, complementing linear perspective

Shading and contour

A monocular cue where light and shadow create perception of form and depth, similar to texture gradient in providing distance cues

Texture gradient

A monocular cue where coarse, detailed textures appear closer while fine, blurred textures seem distant

Linear perspective

A monocular cue where parallel lines converge in the distance, giving a strong sense of spatial depth

Motion parallax

A monocular cue where nearby objects appear to move faster than distant ones when the observer moves, akin to induced movement

Perceptual constancy

The recognition that objects remain stable in shape, size, color and lightness despite changing sensory input

Size constancy

Perceptual constancy that allows objects to be seen as the same size regardless of retinal image changes with distance

Color constancy

Perceptual constancy that maintains perceived object color under varying lighting conditions, interacting with lightness constancy

Shape constancy

Perceptual constancy that sees objects as the same shape when viewed from different angles, despite retinal distortion

Lightness constancy

Perceptual constancy that preserves perceived brightness of objects under different illumination, linked to shading cues

Thinking

The mental manipulation of information involving reasoning, judgment and decision making, built on concepts and schemas

Problem solving

The cognitive process of finding solutions by using algorithms and heuristics, utilizing executive functions in the prefrontal cortex

Judgment

Evaluating information to form opinions or decisions, often influenced by representative and availability heuristics

Decision making

Selecting among alternatives based on judgment and framing, which can be biased by past experiences and context

Concept

A mental category for grouping similar objects or ideas, serving as the foundation for prototypes and schemas

Prototype

The best example of a concept that serves as a cognitive benchmark for categorization, interacting with schemas and concepts

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing schemas without changing them, contrasted with accommodation

Accommodation

Modifying or creating schemas to incorporate new information, enabling adaptation in perception and thought

Executive functions

Higher-order cognitive processes in the prefrontal cortex that manage attention, planning, and goal-directed behavior

Algorithms

Step-by-step problem-solving procedures that guarantee a correct solution but may be time-consuming

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts based on experience that speed up decision making but can lead to biases and errors

Representative heuristic

A shortcut judging likelihood by how well an example matches a prototype, which can ignore statistical realities

Availability heuristic

A shortcut making judgments based on how easily examples come to mind, often skewed by recent or vivid memories

Mental set

A tendency to approach problems using methods that worked previously, which can limit creative problem solving

Priming

The activation of particular associations in memory by recent exposure, which influences subsequent perception and behavior

Repetition priming

Improved recognition of a stimulus due to repeated exposure, facilitating faster recall without conscious effort

Semantic priming

Enhanced processing of a word or concept based on prior exposure to related meanings, illustrating associative networks

Framing

The way information is presented that influences interpretation and choices, demonstrating context effects on decision making

Creativity

The ability to generate novel, effective solutions by combining divergent and convergent thinking with executive control

Divergent thinking

Generating multiple possible solutions to a problem, fostering creativity by expanding the range of options

Convergent thinking

Narrowing multiple possibilities to identify the single best solution, relying on logical analysis and existing schemas

Expertise

Deep knowledge in a domain that provides a foundation for creative problem solving and informed decision making

Imaginative thinking skills

The ability to perceive patterns and relationships in novel ways, essential for divergent thinking

Venturesome personality

A trait marked by willingness to take risks and embrace new experiences, supporting creative exploration

Intrinsic motivation

Internal drive to engage in tasks for personal satisfaction, which enhances creativity and learning

Creative environment

Surroundings that encourage innovation and support collaboration, reinforcing imaginative thinking and risk-taking

Functional fixedness

A mental block limiting use of an object to its traditional function, impeding innovative problem solving

Gambler’s fallacy

The false belief that past independent events affect future probabilities, illustrating errors in probabilistic judgment

Sunk cost fallacy

The tendency to continue an endeavor because of prior investment of resources, despite better options available

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage and retrieval, distinct from metacognition’s self-awareness

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes, guiding strategies for learning and memory improvement

Explicit memory

Conscious memory of facts and experiences, processed by the hippocampus and stored in cortical areas

Episodic memory

A subtype of explicit memory for personally experienced events, linked to autobiographical memory and flashbulb records

Semantic memory

A subtype of explicit memory for general knowledge and facts, forming the basis for concepts and prototypes

Implicit memory

Unconscious memory of skills and procedures, reliant on the cerebellum and basal ganglia for automatic performance

Procedural memory

A form of implicit memory that stores motor skills and routines, such as riding a bike without conscious effort

Prospective memory

Remembering to carry out planned actions in the future, interacting with working memory for cue detection

Recall

Retrieving information without external cues, dependent on effective encoding and strong retrieval pathways

Recognition

Identifying correct information from a set of options, made easier by external retrieval cues compared to recall

Relearning

Measuring memory by how quickly previously learned information can be reacquired, demonstrating savings over initial learning

Parallel processing

The brain’s ability to handle multiple streams of information simultaneously, such as forming explicit and implicit memories

Long-term potentiation

The biological process of strengthening synaptic connections through repeated activation, underlying learning and memory

Working memory

The active processing system for temporarily holding and manipulating information, composed of multiple interacting components

Visuospatial sketchpad

The working memory subsystem that manages visual and spatial information, analogous to an inner eye for mental imagery

Phonological loop

The working memory subsystem for verbal and auditory information, consisting of a phonological store and rehearsal process

Phonological store

The “inner ear” component that holds spoken words and sounds temporarily in the phonological loop

Articulatory rehearsal process

The “inner voice” mechanism that repeats verbal information in working memory to prevent decay

Central executive

The control center of working memory that allocates attention, coordinates subsystems, and integrates information

Episodic buffer

The working memory component that integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and long-term memory

Multi-store model

A memory framework proposing sensory, short-term and long-term stores through which information passes and is encoded

Sensory memory

The initial brief storage of sensory information, comprising iconic and echoic memory for visual and auditory inputs

Iconic memory

A fraction-of-a-second visual sensory register that captures detailed images before they decay

Echoic memory

An auditory sensory register lasting 1–4 seconds that holds sounds long enough for processing and comprehension

Short-term memory

Memory store with limited capacity (about seven items) and duration (20–30 seconds), extendable by rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information in short-term memory to prevent forgetting, effective for immediate tasks like dialing a phone

Elaborative rehearsal

Linking new information to existing knowledge to encode it deeply into long-term memory, superior to maintenance rehearsal

Encoding

The process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored in long-term memory using strategies like chunking

Storage

The retention of encoded information in long-term memory, supported by consolidation during sleep and rehearsal

Retrieval

Accessing stored information from long-term memory using recall or recognition, influenced by effective encoding and cues

Levels of processing

A model positing that deeper semantic processing yields better long-term retention than shallow structural processing

Structural processing

A shallow level focusing on physical features of information, resulting in weaker memory traces

Phonemic processing

A moderate level focusing on sound features of information, yielding better retention than structural processing