Module 2 - Ethical Egoism - PHIL 2306

diseases; 5.2

Every day, approximately 14,200 children under the age of 5 die from preventable ________. This is approximately __.__ million deaths per year. We could save many of them if we chose to, but we don’t. Why?

Ethical Egoism

Each person ought to pursue their own interests exclusively. Our only duty is to do what’s best for ourselves.

Impartiality

Ethical egoism challenges this basic element of ethics.

Altruism

Any act that seeks to advance the good of others for their own sake and not for the sake of advancing the self-interest as the agent.

altruistically; genuine

Rachels refers to Wallenberg, Gates, Buffett, Kravinsky, McCarty as examples of individuals who acted ________. But is their altruism only an appearance and not ______?

Psychological Egoism

Each person does in fact pursue his or her own self-interests exclusively.

Psychological

If __________ Egoism is true, then there is major implications for ethics. For example, we couldn’t be altruistic.

desires

desires; self-interest

self-interest

altruism

Psychological Egoism: Argument 1

1. Whenever we act, we are motivated by our ______

2. If we are motivated by our _____, then we are motivated by ___-_____.

3. So, whenever we act, we are motivated by ____-_______.

4. Therefore, _______ is not possible

want; ought

desires; self-interest

Two Replies to Argument 1

1. There seem to be some acts that we do not ____ to do yet feel we ______ to do.

   1. Example: keeping a promise

2. Being motivated by our _______ is not the same as acting out of ____-_______

   1. Example: Wallenberg’s desire was to help others.

good

good

good; altruism

altruism

Psychological Egoism: Argument 2

1. When we act altruistically, we feel _____

2. If we feel ____ when we act, that is the real motivation behind our actions

3. If feeling _____ is the real motivation behind our actions, then _______ is impossible

4. Therefore, ______ is impossible

implausible

benevolent

self-satisfaction

Two Replies to Argument 2

1. The psychological egoist’s account of human psychology is ________

2. The fact that one might have a self-interested motive does not exclude a ________ motive.

General Point: the object of our desires is generally not a feeling of ___-_________.

interests

interests

interests

The Argument that Altruism is Self-Defeating

1. We ought to do whatever will best promote everyone’s _______

2. The best way to promote everyone’s interests is for each of us to pursue our own ________ exclusively

3. Therefore, each of us should pursue our own _______ exclusively

Ayn Rand

“I am not primarily an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not primarily an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows.”

sacrifice; others

sacrifice; others

true

Ethical Egoism: Ayn Rand’s Argument

1. Either Ethical Altruism is true or Ethical Egoism is true

2. If Ethical Altruism is true, then one is obligated to ________ one’s life for the good of _______

3. It is not the case that one is obligated to ________ one’s life for the good of ______.

4. Ethical Altruism is not ____.

False Dichotomy

False Dichotomy

Arises when a premise of an argument presents us with a choice between two alternatives and assumes that they are exhaustive and exclusive when they are not.

revisionist; morality

Some have argued that Ethical Egoism is not a _________ doctrine at all, but compatible with common sense ________. After all, don’t we have strong self-interested reasons not to harm others, lie, cheat, break our promises?

Egoism

Perhaps Ethical _______ is the foundation of common sense social morality.

unethical

benefit

approve

The Argument that Ethical Egoism Endorses Wickedness

Think of any action we’d normally consider _______.

Now suppose that someone could _______ from the action and not get into any trouble.

Wouldn’t Ethical Egoism have to ______ of such actions?

Principle of Equal Treatment

The Argument that Ethical Egoism is Unacceptably Arbitrary

Rachels rightly asserts that most people accept the _______ of _____ _________.

Principle of Equal Treatment (definition)

We should treat people in the same way unless there is a relevant difference between them.

arbitrarily

The racist violates the Principle of Equal Treatment by _______ giving preferential treatment to members of his or her own race.

arbitrarily; special

THe Ethical Egoist violates the principle of equal treatment by _______ giving preferential treatment to him or herself. But what makes the Egoist so _______?

20

Nearly __ million Americans attend college each year.

12; 60%

Of the 20 million American college students, close to __ million — or __%—borrow annually to help cover costs

37

There’s approximately __ million student loan borrowers with outstanding student loans today.

$902 billion; $1 trillion

There is roughly somewhere between $___ billion and $_ trillion in total outstanding student loan debt in the US today.

1200%

How much has the cost of a year at college increased (percentage-wise)?

Food, housing, cars, healthcare, and just about everything else.

What everyday goods and services have not increased nearly as much as the cost of college (1200%)?

$13,565

How much is the average cost for college (split between private and public colleges) in the US?

51%

What is the affordability ranking for the average cost of college in the US?

Norway

In what country is studying medicine free of tuition fees for students from the EU?

Rent costs 500-1000 euros

In Norway, for what is the only thing that students studying medicine only having to pay for, and for how much?

$86,279. No.

What is the total amount of fees (including living on campus) for one year of medical school at Rice University? Does this include the cost of an undergraduate degree?

Thomas Hobbes; Leviathan (1651)

Who said this, what book is it from, and when was the book written?
“The passions that incline men to peace, are fear of death; desire of such things as are necessary to commodious living; and a hope by their industry to obtain them. And reason suggests convenient articles of peace, upon which men may be drawn to agreements. These articles ....are called laws of natures.”

Religion or culture

Hobbes held that morality is not founded on what two things?

egoist

Hobbes is a kind of _____—how far is a matter of dispute.

Society needs rules to survive.

Hobbe’s basic position is that ethics is a kind of by-product of the fact that society needs what to survive?

They need to follow societal rules if they are to flourish.

Hobbe’s basic position is that ethics is a kind of by-product of the fact that people need to follow societal rules if they are to do what?

The state of nature.

Hobbes calls the lack of government (anarchy) what?

“solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”

Hobbes famously said life for a human being in a state of nature would be what?

Four facts about human life and nature.

For Hobbes, what produces such grim prospects in the state of nature is what four facts about what?

1. We all have equality of need

2. There is a scarcity of resources

3. Humans are basically equal in power

4. Humans have only limited altruism

What are the four facts about human life and nature?

Cooperate or suffer and/or die

Given the four facts about human life and nature, Hobbes held that we must find a way to cooperate, else we will what?

Social contracts.

To escape the state of nature, we form what?

Contracts or rules.

Because of social contracts, morality is basically founded on what two things?

rules; governing; rational; accept

Morality consists in the set of ____, ________ behavior, that ______ people will accept, on the condition that others _____ them as well.

What other people do as well.

Lesson 1 from the Prisoner’s Dilemma

People’s interests are affected not only by what they do, but by what else?

They will end up worse off if they pursue their own individual interests.

Lesson 2 from The Prisoner’s Dilemma

Everyone will end up worse off if they pursue what instead of pursuing mutually beneficial interests?

They must be enforceable.

Lesson 3 from The Prisoner’s Dilemma

Social contracts, if they are to work, must be what?

They’re called a “free rider";” yes.

Lesson 4 from The Prisoner’s Dilemma

An individual who does not hold up the social contract is called a what, and are they met with condemnation?

If they promote living harmoniously for mutual benefit.

1st Advantage of the Social Contract Theory

It suggest what moral rules we should follow and how those rules are justified.

Rules are justified if they promote what?

We should follow the rules for mutual benefit and fear of punishment.

We need to cultivate rational intentions for all citizens.

2nd Advantage of the Social Contract Theory

What does it tell us about why we should follow the rules (2 things)?

What do we need to cultivate in all citizens?

When we agree to obey the rules on the condition that others obey them as well.

Martin Luther King Jr.

3rd Advantage of the Social Contract Theory

It indicates when it is rational to break the rules on what condition?

What historic figure represents giving reasons for non-violently breaking the law?

It preserves the distinction between dutiful acts and supererogatory acts.

No.

4th Advantage of the Social Contract Theory

It preserves the distinction between what two things?

Do all moral theories do this?

Something that is good but more than necessary. (EX: killing yourself to make up for lying to a friend)

Define supererogatory

Each one of us implicitly accepts social rules we recognize as being mutually beneficial.

Objection 1 to the Social Contract Theory

Objection: The “social contract” is based on historical fiction.

What is the appropriate reply to this objection?

It’s still rational for us to follow mutually beneficial moral rules that others accept.

Even if Hume is right that we can’t opt out of society and its rules, it is still rational us to follow what?

Animals, future generations, and oppressed populations.

Objection 2 to the Social Contract Theory

Objection: Some individuals have no claim over us, and we, therefore, have no obligation to respect their interests.

What are 3 examples of vulnerable groups to this?

1. Life evaluation

2. Emotional health

3. Work environment

4. Physical health

5. Healthy behaviors

6. Access to basic necessities

What are the 6 Ways to Measure Societal Happiness?

The 18th and 19th century.

According to Rachels, what two centuries “witnessed an astonishing series of upheavals”?

1. French Revolution

2. American Declaration of Independence

3. American Civil War

What 3 Revolutions/Wars happened in the 18th and 19th centuries?

An industrial revolution in manufacturing, agriculture, and transportation.

While there were upheavals occurring during the 18th and 19th century, the West was experiencing what else?

David Hume

(1711-1776) Scottish philosopher and historian.

Jeremy Bentham

(1748-1842) English jurist and philosopher.

John Stuart Mill

(1806-1873) British philosopher and economist.

Henry Sidgwick

(1838-1900) English philosopher.

Peter Singer

(1946-present) Australian philosopher.

norms

For Utilitarians, morality is NOT about: the _____ of one’s culture

commands

For Utilitarians, morality is NOT about: the ________ of God

order of the universe

For Utilitarians, morality is NOT about: the _____ of the ________ as determined by God

self-interest

For Utilitarians, morality is NOT about: Individual ___-_______

moral

For Utilitarians, morality is NOT about: inflexible _______ rules like “Never lie”

The Principle of Utility

“The principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish happiness.” - Jeremy Bentham

AKA; the most ethical thing to do is to cause the greatest amount of happiness and cause the least amount of pain possible.

aggregate happiness

Utilitarians tend to focus on what kind of happiness, not the distribution of happiness?

1. Racial equality

2. Sexual equality

3. Aiding the poor

4. Animal welfare

Utilitarians were great social reformers in what four areas?

radical consequences

Utilitarianism is a simple sounding ethical principle with what else?

Euthanasia

The intentional ending of one’s life in order to avoid pain and suffering. This might be accomplished, for example, through doctor-assisted suicide.

euthanasia

Under Christian tradition, what specific practice violates the rule that the intentional killing of innocent people is always wrong?

Christian tradition

The utilitarian woud support euthanasia in the Freud case, contrary to what tradition?

the law

Utilitarians argue that we have good reason to change what?

promote the general welfare of all citizens.

For utilitarians, the purpose of the law is to…

William Bennett

Who was America’s first “drug czar”?

William Bennett (quote)

Who said this quote?

“The simple fact is that drug use is wrong. And the moral argument, in the end, is the most compelling argument.”

Henry Sidgwick (quote)

Who said this?

“The good of any one individual is of no more importance, from the point of view of the Universe, than the good of any other; so that as a rational being I am bound to aim at good generally—so far as it is attainable by my efforts—not merely at a particular part of it.”

Nonhuman Animals Argument

1. Reason shows that in our moral deliberations, we must give equal consideration of all interests

2. If we give equal considerations to all interests, then we cannot exclude people on the basis of what they are like or what abilities they possess.

3. If we cannot exclude people on the basis of what they are like or what abilities they possess, then we cannot exclude beings simply because they are not members of our species

   1. Therefore, it follow that in our moral deliberations, we must give equal consideration to the interests of non-human animals

Racists

Violate the principle of rational benevolence (RB) by giving greater weight to the interests of their own race

Sexists

Violate the principle of RB by giving greater weight to the interests of their own gender

Speciesists

Violate the principle of RB by giving greater weight to members of their own species

What is the Two Mothers Thought Experiment?

A thought experiment which compares the situations of two mothers making an ethical decision; did either mother make an immoral decision, and/or whose was more immoral?

Mother 1: A mother must take a single pill in order to prevent her child from being born with a severe disability, but she doesn’t take it.

Mother 2: A mother is guarunteed to have a severely disabled child if she gets pregnant currently, but will have a healthy one in the next cycle. She intentionally gets pregnant anyways.

What are the 3 Elements of Classical Utilitarianism?

1. The only thing that matters is the total amount of happiness generated.

2. Actions are morally judged based upon their consequences.

3. Each person’s happiness is counted equally

Our sense of justice.

Justice—Are Consequences All That Matter?

A world is full of elites and slaves.

25 elites with 100 happiness points each + 75 slaves with 30 happiness points each = 4750 happiness points

vs.

100 elites with 40 happiness points each = 4000 happiness points

With what does this scenario conflict with?