Psych 2e Chapter 6

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.

Associative learning

Learning by connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment; includes classical and operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which a stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.

Operant conditioning

A form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior's occurrence.

Observational learning

Learning that occurs by watching others and imitating their behavior.

Reflex

An automatic, unlearned response to a stimulus.

Instinct

A complex pattern of behavior that is innate and unlearned.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned response (UR)

A natural, unlearned reaction to a stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Conditioned response (CR)

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened.

Extinction

The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period.

Habituation

Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

Stimulus discrimination

The ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli.

Stimulus generalization

Responding in the same way to different but similar stimuli.

Higher-order conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

Law of effect

Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens or increases the frequency of a behavior.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.

Punishment

Any event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Primary reinforcer

A stimulus that satisfies a biological need (e.g., food, water).

Secondary reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money, praise).

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.

Fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule

Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule

Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after a set amount of time has passed.

Variable-interval schedule

Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after varying time intervals.

Shaping

Gradually guiding actions toward the desired behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

Model

In observational learning, the individual whose behavior is being imitated.

Vicarious reinforcement

Increasing the likelihood of a behavior by observing someone else being rewarded for that behavior.

Vicarious punishment

Decreasing the likelihood of a behavior by observing someone else being punished for that behavior.

Attention (modeling step)

First step in observational learning; noticing the behavior of the model.

Retention (modeling step)

Second step in observational learning; remembering what the model did.

Reproduction (modeling step)

Third step in observational learning; performing the behavior that the model demonstrated.

Motivation (modeling step)

Fourth step in observational learning; having a reason to imitate the behavior.