Political Ideas: Conservatism

what is Conservatism suspicious of and what was it traditionally promoted

radical change
traditionally only promoted change to conserve

what are conservatism's approaches to society, government and political practice informed by?

scepticism toward liberal and socialist ideas of human nature

when did conservatism begin to form as an idea? response to what?

began to crystallise in the late 18th century as a response to the French Revolution.

what was the French Revolution's initial aim?

the initial aim of the revolution was to replace the monarchy and aristocracy with a written constitution and representative government based on Enlightenment ideas of rationalism and individualism.

what did Conservatism focus on?
what did it not believe could be achieved, unlike liberalism?

focused on the value of custom, tradition and continuity rather than abstract ideals of liberalism.
it did not believe a perfect society based on reason could be achieved.

what did it promote in opposition to revolution?

promoting the idea of 'change to conserve'

what is change to conserve
how is this influenced by conservative understanding of society

change to conserve
conservatives oppose radical social change ya que they view society as an organic, complex whole.
long-established institutions and practices, like the monarchy and parliamentary sovereignty, reflet the accumulated wisdom of the past and so are tried and tested.
change should be incremental, building on what works in order to conserve what is valuable.

how did conservatism view human nature simply?
whose work influenced this?

- saw human nature as flawed and limited in its grasp of the world
- sceptical view finds its roots in Thomas Hobbes literature.

how does conservatism view society as?
made of?

emphasised organic society over individualism
with society dependent on bonds of trust between smaller units like local communities and societal groups e.g. families, churches, etc.

what did conservatism believe about the state's strength
what did they emphasise?

- the state needed to be strong in order to provide order, peace and stability and to make society and freedom possible.,
- conservatives emphasised hierarchy and authority over equality and democracy.

when did traditional conservatism dominate?

from the French revolution to the late 19th century before developing into One-nation conservatism

when did New Right conservatism emerge?

since the late 20th century, New Right thinking pushes conservatism towards a more neo-liberal direction.

key thinker: Thomas Hobbes
key book? date published?
written in response to what?

Thomas Hobbes
Leviathan (1651) written in response to the English Civil War and the anarchy he associated with it.

Thomas Hobbes
view of human nature

optimistic/pessimistic?
desire for?
equal in ? so?

- cynical view of human nature
- sees humans as endlessly restless in their pursuit of power in order to satisfy immediate desires and any potential future ones
- this desire is both selfish and competitive
- humans are roughly equal in strength and ability so must always be fearful of others as the 'weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest'

Thomas Hobbes
state of nature/natural law

resources? so humans are?
famous quote abt state of nature?
first natural law?
rationality?

- in Hobbes' state of nature, resources are scarce. And, given humans' desire for power and being roughly equal there will be a constant state of war. 'war... of every man against every man'
- life in the state of nature will be 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short'

- the first natural law is that man should seek peace as far as possible, and not war.,
--> and bc humans are rational, it is reasonable to assume that the people, if only for self-preservation, will rse above the state of nature by agreeing to submit their individual desires to the absolute authority of a sovereign.

Thomas Hobbes
power of the sovereign

what is the social contract here?
limits on power of sovereign?
who makes the social contract?

- this social contract established a sovereign with absolute power to provide order, security and stability which will lead to the emergence of society
- key for Hobbes was that the sovereign power was the supreme authority and not constrained by legal rights of any other body
- social contract is made between the people, not between ppl and sovereign. when the contract is completed, the power of the people is at an end as the sovereign now has all power and the ppl only have rights the sovereign chooses to give.

why do some political theorists argue that conservatism is politically incoherent?

due to the nature of inbuilt tensions between one-nation and New Right conservatism.

why is conservatism thought of as less of an ideology and more as a collection of beliefs?
what do they argue this is to prevent?

many argue it is a collection of beliefs, attitudes and ideas that are 'more psychology than ideology' (Michael Oakeshott)
this amounts to no more than a defence of property, privilege and inequality in order to prevent power passing to the 'swinish multitudes'

why did conservatism attack the French revolution?

for it being an attempt to 'only change and pervert the natural order of things'

why is conservatism accused of lacking clear underlying principles?

because it is pragmatic and flexible in its approach to politics.

how does this flexible approach allow the preservance of hierarchy and authority?
where can this be seen?

its flexibility allows conservatism to develop and adapt in order to preserve inequality and privilege.
this is seen in conservatism's gradual acceptance of democracy over time in order to preserve hierarchy and authority.

why are conservatives accused of only supporting traditions that preserve inequality and privilege?

conservatives support traditions of monarchy and aristocracy but not labour-movement traditions like trade unionism.
?

what are the main strands of conservatism?
when were they around?

traditional conservatism (from French Revolution to late 19th century)

One-nation conservatism (late 19th century to late 20th century)

New Right conservatism (late 20th century to present)

traditional conservatism
what are the key features?

hierarchy
paternalism
order
freedom
social attitudes
'little platoons'
change to conserve
empiricism

tradcon
what is natural in society
what belief/approach does this lead to that the govt. should act as

hierarchy is natural in society
Paternalism is the resultant approach which government should take. The ruling elite have a duty and obligation to the many.
(Govt. should act as a father to its children)(Governing in their best interests whilst recognising that often Govt. has a clearer view of their best interests than the people).

tradcon
what is a fundamental core aspect of conservative society what type of citizens does this create

order
the government provides rules, discipline and guidance to ensure a peaceful, ordered society.
this ensures that freedom benefits everyone and citizens are responsible.

tradcon
freedom
what type of freedom
how does this allow the ppl to understand reciprocation

negative freedom (the state placing limits on freedom)
allows people to understand that them following the rules will be reciprocated by others as they too do not want to break the law

tradcon
what traditional values do they promote
why do these need to be protected and how

there are moral values, like traditional marriage and nuclear family, that provide stability and certainty to society.
individual freedoms need to be limited to protect these values so society can continue to be stable.

tradcon
what is society a collection of
what does Burke say about these
how does enlarging the state remove these

society is a collection of 'little platoons', not individuals
each community provides the sense of security, order and stability that individuals desire

Burke says these provide the first link in the chain to 'a love of our country and to mankind'.

a powerful, centralised state, remote from these would damage society

tradcon
empiricism
what is the approach to societal function
how does this give conservatism flexibility

focus on what works (tradition, customs, attitudes) rather than theoretical and abstract principles about what could work.

this means conservatism is pragmatic and flexible in its approach to tackling political problems

who is often regarded as the father of conservatism

Edmund Burke 1729-97

Edmund Burke
key text main message?
Whig principle of what?

Reflections on the Revolution in France - passionately opposed
Burke was a Whig MP. His thinking was based on the Whig principle of opposition to absolute, arbitrary power.,

Burke
American and French revolutions - which supported?
why/not?

- supported American Revolution because it embodied 'change to conserve'. It aimed to protect the ancient rights of the people, which existed before the monarch in London began to tax them without authority.

- opposed French Revolution because it was based on theory and idealism. It aimed to destroy the collective wisdom of the ages by creating a new society based on philosophical abstractions rather than empiricism of existing institutions, customs and traditions.

Burke
human nature
what type of view
what could humans rely on/not?
opposed Hobbes idea of what? what did he instead prescribe?
this is why he did not support the French Revolution?

sceptical view of human nature. saw the individual as foolish but the species as wise.
- argued humans could not rely on individual reason (rationalism) but could rely on tradition and custom which was the 'general bank and capital of nations and ages'
- opposed Hobbes' social contract. Instead argued the only contract that existed was between the dead, living and yet to be born. the present must nurture and protect tradition and custom to pass it on to the future generations.
- the French Revolution destroyed these existing customs and removed the inheritance from those yet to be born

Burke
society
stance on individualism?
how is society described as
stance on French Revolution's emphasis on equality?

- highly critical of individualism, defending importance of 'we' over 'I'.
'little platoons' are where custom is formed that are the bank of knowledge developed from trial and error in dealing with political problems over the years
- society is organic as change occurs naturally and slowly based on practical knowledge and evidence, not theory
- Burke attacked French Revolution's emphasis on equality, arguing that hierarchy was natural in organic societies.

one nation conservatism
what were the key features

threat of disorder
one nation
change to conserve
paternalism

one nation
what did it emerge from

one nation conservatism emerges from the threat of disorder of state and society from socialism, class conflict and the effects of free-market capitalism.
it updates traditional conservatism's ideas to deal with this threat.

one nation
what should it emphasise
how can one area affect the others in society
Benjamin Disraeli quote?

Conservatism should emphasise bonds of affection and trust that hold society together
all classes and groups in society are part of one nation which is organic whereby damage or distress to one element will damage the whole
Benjamin Disraeli: 'the palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy'

one nation
change to conserve
what was Disraeli concerned with?
what did he see reform as?
why did he not use reactionary policies to commercialism?

- Disraeli was concerned with ravaging effects on society of an unchecked free market
- accepted rise of commercialism as inevitable so did not want reactionary policies to simply slow the process
- wanted instead to tackles the worst consequences of the market in order to conserve society. Because he saw reform as an inoculation against revolution.

one nation
paternalism
what is the wealthy's responsibility
what would this involve the state doing?

- wealthy have a clear responsibility to those less well-off.
this would involve the state intervening in the free-market economy and society in order to ensure social stability.

who is a key One Nation Conservative thinker?

Michael Oakeshott 1901-90

Michael Oakeshott
key book and message?
view of human nature
critical of which political idea
belief that abstract ideas will fail, why?

Rationalism and Other Essays
The Politics of Faith and Politics of Scepticism
- saw humans as fragile and unable to understand the world bc it is too complex for human reason to grasp
- critical of politics of 'rationalism' which invokes the remaking of society based on abstract ideas of philosophers
- abstract ideas will always fail bc they are not based on concrete experience.

Michael Oakeshott
quote about why a pragmatic, empirical approach works the best?
stance on 'politics of faith'? instead proposed?

- human societies prefer 'the familiar to the unknown, the actual to the possible' so a pragmatic, empirical approach to problems works best
- Oakeshott rejected the 'politics of faith' with its faith in the ability of government to improve the condition of mankind.
instead, he proposed the politics of 'scepticism' as the government's attempts to perfect mankind are dangerous for human liberty and dignity.

The New Right
what are the key features

small state
free-market capitalism
society

New Right
small state
inspired by
why must the state be rolled back
what should it be limited to
what does it oppose because it creates a dependency culture (according to who)?

- inspired by Ayn Rand's idea of the 'morality of rational self-interest' - if this is to be the key principle of society, the state must be rolled back
- the state should be limited to providing armed forces, police force and a court system in order to ensure property is respected and contracts enforced
- opposes public spending on welfare as it creates a dependency culture according to Robert Nozick.

New Right
Free-market capitalism
what does it believe is the best method for distribution of society's resources?
what is needed to return to free-market capitalism
why should there be minimal taxation and regulation?

- marekt forces are best method for the distribution and management of society's resources.
- thus, deep cuts in taxation, privatisation, deregulation and tight restrictions on govt. spending are needed to return to free-market capitalism.
- everyone should be free to follow all possible opportunities in the marketplace, with minimal levels of taxation and regulation in order to create generalised prosperity.

New Right
socially what is the New Right divided by

divided between Neo-conservatives who wish to return to a society built around authority, national identity and traditional morality whilst neo-liberal advocate a society built around individual choice

New Right
society
neo-conservatives are what? what do they subsequently promote?
neo-liberals believe the state should be minimal because?
example where the two sides would differ?

- neo-conservatives are anti-permissive and would extend the role of the state to promote traditional customs and traditions, e.g. marriage, defence
- neo-liberals: state should be minimal in order to minimise tax and spending. individual choice is about morality as well as economics so the state should not intervene in areas of private morality.
issue of immigration:
neo-conservatives would fear its impact on social cohesion and national identity.
neo-liberals are relaxed abt it as it is natural for a free market to have a free movement of people/labour.

tensions within the New Right
the state
neo-conservatism
neo liberalism
areas of agreement

neo-conservatism: strengthen the state in terms of law and order, promoting traditional values and patriotism
neo-liberalism: roll back the frontiers of the state - spending cuts, privatisation and deregulation.

agreement: free-market economics creates tension as inequality may flourish, increasing the need for law and order and the protection of private property. a strong but limited state is required

tensions within the New Right
society
neo-conservatism
neo-liberalism
areas of agreement

neo-conservatism: restricts individua liberties to promote law and order and national security - increased police power, longer prison sentences. the state should direct the moral life of society: e.g. Thatcher's Clause 28 banning the teaching within schools about homosexuality

neo-liberalism: advance individual liberty through the reduction of tax and the reduction of the welfare state. The state has no role in intervening in areas of private morality.

agreement: smaller state means those in need will require support and guidance from society in the form of 'little platoons' to promote the bonds of trust between individuals and communities.

tensions within the New Right
economy
neo-conservatism
neo-liberalism
agreement?

neo-conservatism: increase spending to promote the country abroad and for national security - increased defence spending.

neo-liberalism: minimise government spending in all areas where possible, but accept the need for govt. funding of defence and justice.

agreement: reduce funding in areas like welfare to concentrate money on law and order, promoting the country and national security.

what is anti-permissiveness?

A rejection of permissiveness, which is the liberal belief that people should make their own moral choices.
the state should impose social order and public morality by promoting traditional values and tough law and order policies.

what is statism

a political system where the state has a large degree of control over social and economic affairs.

what is objectivism
Rand

Rand's philosophy is based on the principle of reason, self-interest and capitalism, which she claims will deliver freedom, justice, progress and happiness on Earth. It is set against statism and collectivism where man's life and work belongs to the state, which she argues leads to 'slavery, brute force, stagnant terror'

Ayn Rand
when alive
main message
books?

1905-82
highly controversial thinker of the New Right - offered a stark and radical challenge to the ideas of statism and collectivism.
Atlas Shrugged
The Virtue of Selfishness

what did Rand offer as a new concept of ethical egoism?

instead, an ethics of rational selfishness which is the basis of morality.
is seen as radical individualism.
described as objectivism.

how does Rand view humans achieving their happiness.
what type of view of society does this support

for Rand, following reason thus means that what should be rejected in order for humans to be able to think for themselves

Humans must pursue their own happiness and prosper by treating others as individuals.
This supports atomism where society does not exist but rather a collection of individuals pursuing their own happiness.

following reason means rejecting emotions, faith and authority in order to think for yourself.

for Rand's objectivist viewpoint, what is the ideal social system? why?
what type of value system should ideally be used?
what should the state's only roles be?

- ideal social system: free market capitalism which involves a 'separation of state and economics'. This will protect the rights of the individual to use their own mind and take action out of their own will and keep the product of their labour

society should be meritocratic, not hierarchal: the most innovative and hard-working are able to trade with other rational egoists to reach their goal

the state is vital but should be limited to a night watchman rol to protect the rights of the individual against criminals and foreign invaders

who is another key New Right thinker

Robert Nozick

Robert Nozick
when alive
key book and message?
view of human nature
what do all individuals have
what does he see individuals doing
natural rights or no?
liberty being central, what does this mean for legal enforcement

1938-2002
Anarchy, State and Utopia - an attack on socialism and wealth redistribution of any kind.
- broke from Hobbes tradition and has more optimistic view of human nature
- all individuals have self-ownership
- saw individuals having their own ends to which they rationally devote themselves. individuals have right that existed before any social constract or state.
- as individuals are so central, liberty is the utmost value. Thus, individuals should be free from legally enforced obligations in society or economics.

Robert Nozick
what should the individual be allowed to do from their labour
what basketball player did Nozick support the economic argument of
what type of state does Nozick justify
what does Nozick say about individuals competing bc of his optimistics view
what does a minimal state allow

- individual should be able to keep the fruits of their labour they have earned through the free market
- Nozick proposed the 'Wilt Chamberlain' argument: Chamberlain was in demand so in his contract included that 25 cents from each spectator went to him. he earned $250,000 more than everyone else . This was just as he earned it freely from his own labour.
- a minimalist state could be justified if it is limited to the protection of the individual, property and contract. (unlike to conservative view that state should be strong but limited)
- Nozick's positive view of human nature concludes that there are individuals pursuing personal projects rationally and not just brutishly competitive atoms.
- a minimql state allows for the emergence of peaceful coexistence of voluntarily formed communities.

what are the core ideas of conservatism

the individual
free market
government

human nature
areas of agreement

- most conservative have a pessimistic view of human nature. Stress the fallibility of human nature.
- this leads conservatives to argue that the perfect society is unachievable and dangerous.

human nature
areas of tension
Hobbes?
Burke?
Oakeshott?
Rand and Nozick?

Hobbes (traditional conservatism)
- most cynical view of human nature (HN) , humans as selfish and fearful of other driven by a 'desire of power after power'
- humans are rational, view closer to liberalism.

Burke (traditional conservatism)
- HN is flawless and not able to be perfected
- unlike Hobbes, did not see man as individualistic, selfish and brutal. saw humans as capable of goodness and affection to others if their actions are informed by custom and tradition. they naturally seek to trust one another in little platoons.

Oakeshott (one-nation)
- HN fragile but have instinctive preference for custom over unknown and abstract ideas. Humans can be 'benign and benevolent' if they have security provided by traditional morality and custom.
- politics of scepticism over politics of faith - stresses human fallibility over human potential.

Rand and Nozick (New Right)
- HN as positive, seeing humans as rational individuals who are dignified, not brutal in pursuit of their own goals.
- thus, individuals make their own choices in society and economy and flourish on their own accord.

the state
area of agreement

- the central aim of the state is to provide national security and law and order

the state
areas of tension
Hobbes?
Burke
Oakeshott? (one-nation)
Rand and Nozick?

Hobbes: ppl form social contract to create a sovereign which has absolute power to ensure order that society and freedom needs to thrive. Active role for state in protecting citizens

Burke: no hay social contract in Hobbesian terms, only a contract between different generations. The state is organic and emerges gradually in response to human needs.
- hierarchy was natural and paternalism should exist.
- favoured local communities where natural bonds can form.

Oakeshott: the state should be guided by pragmatism. Paternalism.

New Right: state should be small, existing to enforce contracts, national security and maintaining law and order.
- distributive justice was unjust and legalised theft of wealth to those who did not create it

society
traditional forms of conservatism

traditional:
- paternalistic view of society
- organic and living - individuals bound together by bonds of affection and trust
- tradition and custom and shared values and morals are crucial to these ties
Hobbes: society could only exist when stability was provided by sovereign
Burke: organic, natural hierarchy where elite governed in best interests of all society.
little platoons.
Oakeshott: sceptical of revolution and change should be empirically informed.

Rand and Nozick: challenged organic view. instead, atomistic with individuals rationally pursuing their own ends.
positive view of human progress
society has no right to place obligations or restrictions on individual, in form of traditions, customs
individual should be free to make own rational choices

economy
areas of agreement
private property
capitalism

delete?:

private property:
- is good
- provides individual with security
- provides basis for respecting property rights of others as we wish our own to be respected. Vital for order
- expression of individual
- economy should be based on private property. excessive restrictions on private property will limit freedom, creativity and hard work.

capitalism:
- most efficient and effective means of creating wealth . also links to view of HN as selfish so ppl will work harder to keep the fruits of their labour.
- wealth inequality is natural and reflection of differing talents, work ethic and effort of individuals.
- desire to impose wealth equality is immoral as it is not rooted in the idea of natural justice that people should benefit from own hard work.

economy
areas of tension
Hobbes?
Burke?
Oakeshott?
Rand?
Nozick?

Hobbes: powerful sovereign is able to impose order which is essential to the economy working.
Burke: free market should be left to operate free from government interference. the alleviation of property should be achieved by private charity, not government

Oakeshott: private property as form of power and security. should be widely spread in society.

New Right: defend the free market strongly. it will award the individual for their hard work and creativity
Nozick: welfare state was like forced labour - it forces those who work to create resources for the state to give to those who have contributed nothing towards those resources.

tensions within conservatism:
human nature
traditional versus new right

traditional:
imperfectionist view
from this emerges the need for order, stability and tradition
underpins generally sceptical approach to politics based on pragmatic, not abstract principles

New Right:
more optimistic view of human nature based on rationalism of the individual
minimal state with a free market will provide the basis for individual to flourish
leads to strongly ideological approach based on principles of small state and free market - positive view of progress
politics of faith over politics of scepticism

tensions in conservatism
state
traditional versus new right

traditional:
natural elite dominate the state and should govern in the best interests of the governed
pragmatic approach to role of state: should take active role to ensure social stability of 'one nation'

New Right:
reducing state to small, but strong state that provides security, law and order.
this is just, maximises freedom and will reverse the dependency culture.
opposed to natural hierarchy idea arguing instead for meritocracy where most talented lead.

tensions in conservatism
the society
traditional versus New Right

traditional:
organic, based on little platoons
importance of tradition, custom to provide continuity in changing world
these principles should be nurtured for change to conserve

New Right:
atomistic - collection of individuals rationally pursuing own ends
meritocratic not hierarchal
tradition and custom should be challenged if they hinder individual freedom or the free market.

tensions in conservatism
economy
traditional versus New Right

traditional:
free market based on principle of private property is the best generator of wealth.
it can create tensions and divisions so moderate reform, intervention is necessary to conserve one nation and protect against radical ideas like socialism.

New Right:
free market should be unregulated as it generates most wealth, productivity and freedom for all
allows innovation and best ideas to drive the economy
will create generalised wealth and raise living standards for all by reducing costs of goods and services whilst increasing productivity and wages.