Anatomy and Physiology: Chapter 1

Anatomy

scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structure such as the size and shape of a bone “the what”

Physiology

scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things “the why and how”

Gross

structures examined without a microscope

ex: regional, systematic, surface

regional

studied area by area

ex: heart

systematic

studied system by system

ex: whole cardiovascular system

surface

external form used to visualize deeper structures

Cytology and Histology

structures so small they require aid of a misroscope to be studied

cytology

cellular anatomy (study of cells)

histology

study of tissues

X-ray

this extremely shortwave electromagnetic radiation moves through the body, exposing a photographic plate to form a radiograph (a flat, 2D image)

ultrasound

this uses high-frequency sound waves, which strike internal organs and bounce back to the receiver on the skin (among other things, it’s used to evaluate the condition of the fetus during pregnancy)

pathology

structural and functional changes caused by disease

Exercise Physiology

changes in structure and function caused by exercise

homeostasis

balance in the body’s internal environment

structural and functional organization in the human body

chemical level, cell level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, organism level

chemical level

interaction of atoms and molecules

ex: atoms, DNA, protein

cell level

structural and functional unit of living organisms. Combinations of molecules for structures called organelles (ex: mitochondria) that carry out specific functions

ex: animal cell

tissue level

group of similar cells and the material surrounding them “cells put together make this level”

the 4 types of tisse

epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous

organ level

2 or more tissues functioning together “tissue put together”

organ system level

group of organs functioning together

organism level

any living thing; whether composed if one cell or many

integumentary system function

provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D

integumentary system examples

consists of skin (the largest organ in the body), hair, nails, and sweat glands

skeletal system function

provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fat

skeletal system examples

consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints

muscular system function

produces body movement, maintains posture, and produces body heat

muscular system examples

consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons

nervous system function

a major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions

nervous system examples

consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors

endocrine system function

a major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions

endocrine system example

consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secretes hormones

cardiovascular system function

transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature

cardiovascular system examples

consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood

lymphatic (immune) system function

removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from from the digestive tract

lymphatic (immune) system examples

consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs

respiratory system functions

exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the air and regulates blood pH

respiratory system examples

consists of the lungs and respiratory passages

digestive system function

performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorbtion of nutrients, and emilination of waste

digestive system examples

consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs

urinary system function

removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance

urinary system examples

consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine

female reproductive system function

produces oocytes and its the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors

female productive system examples

consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands, and associated structures

male reproductive system function

produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors

male reproductive system examples

consists of the testes, assessory structures, ducts, and penis

Characteristics of Life

organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development (differentation and morphogenesis), and reproduction

True

True of False: viruses aren’t alive because they can’t reproduce by themselves

organization

condition in which they are specific interrelationships and functions among the parts of an organism

metabolism

the ability to use energy to perform vital functions; all chemical reactions of the body

responsiveness

ability to sense changes in the interior and exterior environment and adjust; cell-to-cell communication is necessary

growth for characteristics of life

increase in size and/or number of cells

Development

changes in an organism over time

Differentiation (development)

changes from general to specific

ex: create a blastula, cell division creates different layers

morphogenesis (development)

changes in shape of tussues, organs, or the entire organization

reproduction

formation of new cells or new organisms for growth and development; allows organisms to pass on their genes to their offspring

homeostasis

maintenance of relatively constant interval enviornment within the body (98.4-98.8 degrees)

Feedback loops

homeostasis is regulated by ______ that allow for a process to be adjusted by the outcome

Components of a feedback loops

receptor, control center, and the effector

receptor

monitors the value of some variable by detecting a stimulus (a change in the variable)

ex: receptor sees a problem and contacts the brain

contol center

establishes the set point and receives input from the receptor

ex: contacts effector to fix the problem received from the receptor

effector

generates the response which can change the value of the variable

negative feedback

1. regulates most sytems in the body

2. dances around the line of homeostasis by going over and under it almost zig-zag like

3. counteracts a change in a variable (body temperature) by decreasing the change to help maintain homeostasis by returning to the set point

4. ex: you go outside, so your body sweats to cool your body temp, and you go back inside so your body shivers to warm you up again

positive feedback

1. when a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater and will keep increasing until you go back to homeostasis

2. leads away from homeostasis and can cause death

3. ex: delivering a baby (increase in oxytocin to squeeze baby), fevers (killing the infection by increasing heat), knicking an artery (pulse will increase to pump blood faster because it isnt reaching your body pasts and will cause death due to blood loss)

anatomical position

body erect, face forward, feet together, palms facing forward

supine

lying face up

prone

lying face downward (prone to attack)

Superior

(cephalic) toward the head

inferior

(caudal) away from the head

medial

toward the midline

lateral

farther away from the middle of the body

proximal

closer to the center of the body or a certain point of attachment where a limb connects

distal

farther away from the center of the body or the certain point of attachment where a limb connects

superficial

closer to the surface

deep

farther from the surface of the body (skin)

anterior

(ventral) toward the front of the body (forward)

posterior

(dorsal) toward the back of the body

Quadrants of the body

Right- upper, Right- lower, Left-upper, Left-lower

Regions of the body

Just study the image please

sagittal (medial) plane

divides the body into left and right portions

Frontal (coronal) plane

divides the body into anterior (front)and posterior (back) sections

Transverse (horizontal) plane

divides the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) sections

oblique plane

the body cut into anthing but a right 90 degree angle

longitudinal plane

cut along the length of an organ

transverse (cross) plane

cut at right angle to the length of an organ

Oblique

cut at any but a right angle

cavities

the body contains dorsal and ventral body ______

Dorsal body cavities

cranial and vertebral cavity

cranial cavity

houses the brain

vertebral cavity

houses the spinal cord

Ventral body cavity

contains the thoracic cavity which contains more cavities, and the abdominopelvic cavities which also contain more cavities of its own

Thoracic cavity

divided into pleural cavities, each cnclosing a lung, and a medical mediastinum, which contains the heart, some major blood vessels, thymus, trachea, and esophagus

abdominopelvic cavity

consisting of the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity

abdominal cavity

consists of many digestive organs (stomach, intestines, liver) and the spleen

pelvic cavity

consists of the urinary bladder, urethra, rectum, and reproductive organs

serous membrane

• covers the organs of the body cavities and line the cavity (does not directly touch the organ)

• job is to cover the organ, contain the fluid, and protect the organ

Pericardium

serous membrane that surrounds the heart and contains pericardial fluid

Pleura

type of serous membrane that covers the lungs and lines the thoracic cavity; contains pleuric fluid

Peritoneum

type of serous membrane that surrounds many abdominal organs and lines the abdominopelvic cavity; containd peritoneal fluid

Ex: heart- made up of inner layer (visceral layer) lays right up on the heart, then a layer of fluid to help w insulation, friction, protection, and an outer layer

mesentery

regions of double-folded visceral peritoneum that is attached to certain points to the posterior abdominopelvic wall

• these provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the digestive organs