Personality, Development

Agreeableness

Agreeableness is a Big Five personality trait which refers to levels of kindness, warmness and cooperation in an individual.

Archetype

Term coined by Carl Jung which refer to symbols shared by all humans that comprise the collective unconscious.

Basic Anxiety

A term introduced by Karen Horney that refers to the feeling of being lonely and helpless developed in childhood. This is experienced by all individuals which can be resolved by moving towards, away, or against others.

Collective Unconscious

The term coined by Carl Jung which refers to the deep level of awareness below Freud's level of unconscious. Jung believed that archetypes shared by all cultures are held in this level of conscious.

Congruence

The term created by Carl Rogers that refers to consistency between one's own self-concept and that of others.

Conscientiousness

A Big Five personality trait which refers to one's level of commitment, folle through and dependibility.

Conscious

The level of consciousness that consists of the thoughts, feelings, and perceptions that one is currently aware according the Freud.

Defense Mechanism

Used by the ego to reduce the anxiety caused by unacceptable thoughts or conflict between the id and superego in order to preserve one's self image.

Denial

A type of Freudian defense mechanism in which the ego refuses to allow painful events into one's conscious mind.

Displacement

A Freudian defense mechanism in which the ego reduces anxiety by moving aggressive feelings or behaviros to a safer target.

Ego

The part of the personality that operates according to the reality principle in an effort to negotiate between the desires of the id and the limits set by the superego.

Extraversion (Extroversion)

A Big Five personality trait which describes individuals who are highly social and who draw their energy from interacting with others.

Five-Factor Model of Personality

Model of personality was created by Costa and McCrae and explains personality according to five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability.

Fixation

Occurs when one stagnates in their psychosexual development because they have not resolved conflicts from an earlier psychosexual stage.

Inferiority Complex

The term coined by Alfred Adler which refers to feelings of inadequacy that stem from the inability to complete tasks independently which stems rom childhood experiences.

Introversion

A Big Five personality trait characterized by inidivuals who are more reserved, quiet, and who draw their energy from time spent alone.

Locus of Control

A perception individuals have regarding how much influence they have over situations in their environment.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

A self-report measure that assesses personality characteristics and psychological disorders.

Neuroticism (Emotional Stability)

A Big Five personality trait that refers to levels of anxiety, worry and depressed mood in an individual.

Oedipus Complex

Refers to the sexual attraction a boy feels toward his mother along with jealousy and anger toward his father that occurs during the phallic stage.

Openness

A Big Five personality trait which refers to one's willingness to try new experiences, be imaginitive and be open-minded.

Preconscious

The level of one's conscious just below the level of awareness that can be easily brought into consciousness with the help of psychoanalysis.

Projection

A type of Freudian defense mechanism in which the ego attempts to reduce the anxiety caused by accusing others of having the unacceptable characteristics the person holds.

Projective Test

An assessment intended to bring out one's inner thoughts and feelings. Examples include the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test.

Psychodynamic Perspective

A modern day version of Freud's original psychoanalytic theory that still emphasizes the unconscious and the influence of childhood experiences, but moves away from a focus on sex and aggression.

Rationalization

A Freudian defense mechanism in which the ego reduces anxiety by creating justification to inappropriate behaviors or unacceptable thoughts.

Reaction Formation

A Freudian defense mechanism in which the ego reduces anxiety by acting the opposite of how they actually feel in order to redirect their unacceptable real feelings.

Reciprocal Determinism

According to Albert Bandura is the interaction between the individual, the environment, and cognition.

Regression

A Freudian defense mechanism in which the ego reduces anxiety by reverting to childlike behavior.

Repression

A Freudian defense mechanism used when the ego reduces anxiety by pushing unacceptable thoughts and painful memories into the unconscious mind.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A type of projective test which attempts to reveal people's inner thoughts and feeling by showing them inkblots and attempting to identify themes in their responses.

Self-Concept

The term for th set of beleifs an individual holds about themselves.

Self-Efficacy

The beleif an individual has about their ability to be successful at a given task.

Social Cognitive Theory

Combines the behavioral and the cognitive approaches of psychology to examine the interaction between environment, behavior, and cognition.

Sublimation

A Freudian defense mechanism in which the ego reduces the anxiety caused by unacceptable thoughts and urges by redirecting them toward a more socially accepted activity.

Superego

Refers to the part of the personality that acts as the conscience, and operates according to the morality principle.

Thanatos

Refers to Freud's term for the death instinct.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A type of projective test which attemtps to reveal people's inner thoughts and feelings by asking them to respond to a series of ambiguous pictures by describing what happened before, during, and after the event depicted.

Trait Theory

An approach to personality created by Gordon Allport that determines individual differences based on people's behavioral dispositions.

Transference

According to Freud is the tendency of a client to project the feelings that they have towards a person in their life onto their therapist.

Unconditional Positive Regard

A term coined by Carl Rogers whcih refers to the belief that all people can recover and improve themselves. A therapist must demonstrate a positive outlook towards the client at all times.

Unconscious

According to Freud is the level of consciousness that contains thought and feelings that are not unacceptable in society. As a result people try to repress these thoughts and feling but they can still impact behavior.

Cardinal Trait

Refers to Gordon Allport's name for a characteristic that encompasses all of the components of an individual's life and that has an impact on nearly every facet of one's personality.

Central Trait

Gordon Allport's term for a personality characteristic that is often cited as describing the individual in most situations.

Electra Complex

According to the psychoanalytic theory, it is the sexual attraction a girl feels toward her father along with jealousy and anger toward her mother that occurs during the phallic stage.

Learned Helplessness

The phenomenon in which individuals do not take action because the have come to believe that their actions will have not impact on improving circumstances in their life.

Libido

Refers to one's sexual drive according to Sigmund Freud.

Pleasure Principle

Refers to how the id operates by seeking immediate gratification to wants and desires.

Reality Principle

Refers to the conflict betwen the wants of id and the moral compass of the superego which the eog attemtps to resolve in an acceptable manner.

Womb Envy

Karen Horney's term for the jealousy some men feel for the ability of women to give birth. This is a counter to Freud's notion of penis envy in women.

Secondary Traits

Gordon Allport's name for a characteristic that defines only a narrow aspect of an individual's personality. For example, always driving a clean car or liking spicy foods.

Striving for Superiority

A term coined by Alfred Adler in which an individual attempts to overcome feelings of inferiority by exaggerating one's abilities or accomplishments.

Accommodation

The adjustment of an existing schema in order to incorporate new information which generally occurs when one learns a new word or has a new experience.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects have feelings and emotions which according to Piaget is generally present during the preoperational stage (4-7 years old).

Assimilation

The inclusion of new and different information into preexisting schemas because the individual does not yet have a category for the term they are trying to express of for the situation they are experiencing.

Attachment

The tendency for young infants and animals to become emotionally connected to their caregivers.

Authoritarian Parenting Style

Parenting style in which the caregiver demonstrates power over their children and demands obedience to rules. The parent is seen as an authority figure and expects obedience without question from their children.

Authoritative Parenting Style

Parenting style that encourages open lines of communication with their children, yet still places restrictions and limits on behavior. These parents hold their children accountable but explain why they are being punished if they violate a rule.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erik Erikson's second stage of psychosocial development in which toddlers either develop a sense of self-reliance or doubt their ability to complete activities independent of their parents.

Concrete Operational Stage

The third stage of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development (ages 7-11) in which a child has mastered conservation tasks, and think in two-dimensions.

Conservation

The ability to understand that objects do not change in size just because their shape changes. According to Jean Piaget, this cognitive ability develops during the concrete operational stage (age 8).

Contact Comfort

Developed by Harry Harlow which refers to the physical connection (rather than the satisfaction of a biological need such as hunger) that leads to attachment between a caregiver and an infant.

Conventional Level of Moral Reasoning

The second level of Kohlberg's theory. It involves making moral decisions based on how others will view one's behavior and what a set of laws determines is right or wrong.

Critical Period

A range of time in which certain behaviors or attachments must be learned/made, if not, they will be difficult or impossible to learn later in life (caregiver/infant bond, language).

Discontinuity

The concept that human development is a process that occurs gradually over time rather than in separate and distinct stages.

Dizygotic Twins

Twins who develop from two different fertilized eggs and who are no more genetically similar to one another than siblings (50% of genes are shared).

Egocentrism

According to Jean Piaget this occurs most prominently in the pre-operational stage of cognitive development (ages 2-7) and involves a child's tendency to view experiences from only their own perspective assuming that others share this same perspective.

Embryonic Stage

The second period of prenatal development from the second to eighth week during which the nervous system and major organs develop.

Fetal Stage

The third and longest period of prenatal development lasting from approximately the ninth week until birth during which organs and tissues become developed and differentiated.

Formal Operational Stage

The fourth and last stage according to Jean Piaget. During this stage, a person can think abstractly and conceptualize hypothetical objects and situations.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erik Erikson's seventh stage of psychosocial development in which individuals in middle adulthood reflect on their contributions to the next generation or feel that they are not making significant contributions to society.

Germinal Stage (Zygotic)

The first stage of prenatal development that occurs from conception until two weeks during which the fertilized egg is implanted in the uterus.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Erik Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial personality development in which adolescents either develop a strong sense of self or question who there are and what makes them unique.

Imprinting

Occurs during a critical period when young animals/infants develop an attachment to a mother like figure by forming a bond with the first moving object to which they are exposed.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erik Erikson's fourth stage of psychosocial development in which elementary age children either learn to be productive at completing specific tasks or feel inferior and incompetent.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erik Erikson's third stage of psychosocial personality development in which preschool age children either develop the ability to begin activities in which they are interested or experience feelings of inadequacy because they are criticized for their efforts.

Integrity vs. Despair

Erik Erikson's eighth stage of psychosocial development in which individuals in late adulthood reflect on their lives and either have a sense of satisfaction and accomplishment or regret and remorse for the way they have lived their life.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erik Erikson's sixth stage of psychosocial development in which individuals in early adulthood either create meaningful loving relationships with a significant other or close friends and family or feel alone and without support.

Maturation

The biologically orderly and sequential time at which different parts of the body and brain develop.

Monozygotic Twin

Identical twins who split from the from the same fertilized egg and, as a result, share 100% of the same DNA.

Moro Reflex

An automatic response demonstrated in healthy infants in which babies throw their arms and legs out from their body in response to a loud noise or surprise.

Nature vs. Nurture

A theme that runs though many subfields of psychology, this discusses the interaction between genetics and environmental factors in relation to personal characteristics such as intelligence or temperament.

Object Permanence

Occurs during the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development (0-2) in which a child realizes that objects which cannot be seen still exist. According to Jean Piaget children gain this ability around 8 months of age, while today researchers believe it appears earlier.

Permissive Parenting Style

Parenting style characterized by few rules of demands placed on the child, but rather an emphasis on acceptance and love. There are few limits or restrictions placed on the child.

Postconventional Level of Moral Reasoning

Level of moral reasoning is based on what the individual personally believes is right or wrong without regard for the opinion of others or for the consequences of their decisions. This is the third and last level of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning.

Preconventional Level of Moral Reasoning

The first level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development which involves determining right and wrong based the likelihood of punishment or the benefits one will receive from a given situation.

Preoperational Stage

The second stage of Jean Piaget's theory which is characterized by egocentrism, animism, and the inability to display conservation. According to Piaget, this stage is present from ages 2-7.

Primary Sex Characteristic

The physical masculine or feminine traits necessary for sexual reproduction such as ovaries in females and the testes in males which come into full development during puberty.

Psychosocial Development

Refers to the stages of development in relation to others developed by Erik Erikson which explains a series of 8 conflicts that unfold over the lifespan.

Reversibility

A characteristic of Jean Piaget's preoperational stage (ages 2-7) in which children begin to understand that relationships can go in more than one direction. for example, an individual understands that if they have a brother, the brother must also have a sibling.

Rooting Reflex

An automatic response demonstrated by healthy infants at birth. When an infant is touched on the cheek, they will turn towards the touch and begin to suck. This may have served an evolutionary purpose for feeding.

Secondary Sex Characteristic

A masculine or feminine trait which develops during puberty but is not necessary for reproduction (facial hair in males or breast growth in females).

Secure Attachment

Found when a child is upset at the separation from a caregiver and seeks physical touch when the caretaker returns which was tested in Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation test.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development from birth through age 2 in which the child seeks to satisfy sensory needs by engaging in motor movements (crying to get food from their caregiver).

Strange Situation Test

Developed by Mary Ainsworth to test attachment styles between infants and their caregivers. It involves temporarily separating babies from their caregivers and noting their reactions (secure, insecure).

Temperament

Refers to a biologically constructed component of personality that is a consistent throughout life such as emotional responsiveness or openness to experience.

Teratogen

An agent or process that causes abnormalities in a fetus such as alcohol or drugs.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erik Erikson's first stage of psychosocial development in which infants come to believe that they can rely on the world around them to meet their needs or they become uncertain that the world will come to satisfy their needs.

Anxious-Avoidant Attachment

A type of insecure attachment in which a child demonstrates limited exploration and indifference toward their caregiver as demonstrated in Mary Ainsworth's strange situation test.

Babinski Reflex

An automatic response demonstrated by healthy infants when their toes fan out and then curl in when the bottom of their foot is stroked.