Psychology Chapter 2

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe,
after an outcome is known, that you “knew
it all along.”

Confirmation bias

The tendency to seek,
notice, and interpret evidence that
confirms existing beliefs.

Overconfidence

Overestimating the
accuracy of one’s judgments or knowledge.

Quantitative research

Research using
numerical measures and statistical
analysis.

Qualitative research

Research using
non-numerical, open-ended data to
identify themes/meanings.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable
prediction about the relationship between
variables.

Dependent variable

The outcome that is
measured; presumed to change because of
the independent variable.

Independent variable

The factor that is
manipulated or categorized to test its
effect on the dependent variable.

Falsifiable

Capable of being disproven
by evidence.

Operational definitions

Precise
procedures for measuring or
manipulating variables.

Replicated

Repeated using similar
methods to see if the same results occur.

Sample

The subgroup of a population
that is actually studied

Population

The larger group from which
a sample is drawn and to which results
may generalize.

Representative sample

A sample that
reflects key characteristics of the
population.

Random sampling

Selecting participants
so every population member has an equal
chance to be chosen.

Convenience sampling

Selecting
participants who are easily available.

Generalize

To apply findings from a
sample to the broader population.

Stratified sampling

Sampling that
matches population proportions on key
subgroups (strata).

Confounding variables

Extra factors that
co-vary with the independent variable and
may affect the dependent variable.

Random assignment

Randomly placing
participants into experimental conditions to
equalize groups.

Experimenter bias

Unintentional
researcher influence that skews procedures
or results.

Double-blind study

Neither
participants nor researchers know who is
in each condition.

Single-blind study

Participants do not
know which condition they are in.

Social desirability bias

Giving answers
that present oneself favorably rather
than truthfully.

Experimental group

The group that
receives the treatment or exposure to the
independent variable.

Control group

The comparison group
that does not receive the independent
variable.

Placebo effect

Changes caused by
expectations of treatment rather than the
treatment itself.

Positive correlation

Two variables
move in the same direction (as one
increases, the other increases).

Negative correlation

Two variables
move in opposite directions (as one
increases, the other decreases).

Naturalistic observation

Unobtrusive
observation of behavior in natural
settings without manipulation.

Structured interview

An interview with
a fixed set and order of questions (often
with preset choices).

Case study

An in-depth investigation
of a single individual or a small group.