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Declaration of Independence (1776)

Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson; announced separation from Britain based on natural rights and social contract theory, arguing government requires the consent of the governed, and lists grievances against King George III

Articles of Confederation (1781)

The first U.S. governing document; created a weak central government with a unicameral Congress, no independent executive or judiciary, no power to tax or regulate commerce, and required unanimous consent to amend

Federalist No. 10 (Madison)

Argues that a large republic with many competing factions is the best defense against the "mischiefs of faction," supporting a pluralist democracy

Brutus No. 1

An Anti-Federalist paper warning that a large, powerful central government would swallow up state sovereignty and threaten individual liberty; argues republics work best when small

Federalist No. 51 (Madison)

Explains how separation of powers and checks and balances control abuses by majorities, arguing government is necessary because "men are not angels"

Federalist No. 70 (Hamilton)

Argues that a single executive provides more energy, accountability, and decisiveness than a plural executive

Federalist No. 78 (Hamilton)

Argues judges should serve for life to ensure judicial independence, calls the judiciary the "least dangerous branch," and lays out the logical basis for judicial review

Letter from Birmingham Jail (MLK)

Defends nonviolent direct action, argues individuals have a moral duty to disobey unjust laws while accepting the legal consequences, and critiques the "white moderate" who prioritizes order over justice

Article I of the Constitution

Establishes the legislative branch (Congress); enumerates Congress's powers, including taxation, regulating commerce, and declaring war; outlines the lawmaking process

Article II of the Constitution

Establishes the executive branch and the presidency; covers how the president is elected, eligibility requirements, and presidential powers, including the "take care" clause

Article III of the Constitution

Establishes the judicial branch and the Supreme Court; defines the scope of federal judicial power, treason, and the right to a jury trial

Article IV of the Constitution

Governs relationships between the states (full faith and credit, extradition); establishes the process for admitting new states and guarantees each state a republican form of government

Article V of the Constitution

Establishes the amendment process: a 2/3 vote of Congress or a convention called by 2/3 of state legislatures to propose an amendment, and ratification by 3/4 of the states

Article VI of the Constitution

Contains the Supremacy Clause, making the Constitution and federal law the "supreme law of the land"; requires officials to swear an oath to the Constitution and bans religious tests for office

Article VII of the Constitution

Establishes the process for ratifying the Constitution itself, requiring approval from 9 of the original 13 states