Research Methods Ch. 1-4

Authority

Information from an expert or higher up, accepts statement without question (ex. Mom told me Santa is real).

Tenacity

Information passed down through tradition, superstition, etc., it's always just been accepted (ex. old wives' tales).

Intuition

It just feels right/wrong/etc., not always right (ex. A sense of danger).

Rational Method

Logical reasoning to come to a conclusion, things don't always follow logic (ex. She's shivering so she is cold).

Empirical Method

Direct observation/personal experience to draw conclusions, not always accurate (ex. This test was easy for me, so it's easy).

Steps of the Scientific Method

1) Observe behavior or other variable 2) Form a tentative answer of explanation (hypothesis) 3) Use hypothesis to generate a testable prediction 4) Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations 5) Use observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis.

Hypothesis

Adds specificity to theories.

Prediction

Takes the hypothesis and adds even more specificity to it and is testable.

Qualitative Research

Uses words for data (quality of life, good, bad, mediocre).

Quantitative Research

Uses numbers for data (quality of life on a scale 1-10) and needs to be analyzed.

Research Process Steps

1) Find a research idea 2) Hypothesis 3) Determine how you'll measure and define variables 4) Identify participants, selection of participants, and treatments 5) Select a research strategy 6) Select a research design 7) Conduct the study 8) Evaluate the data 9) Report the results 10) Refine/reformulate your research idea.

Applied Research

Solving practical problems.

Basic Research

Expands scientific knowledge, fundamental, solves theoretical problems.

Primary Sources

Firsthand source - research that I did (helpful because you know the origin and reliable).

Secondary Sources

Research my colleague did (helpful to have a second analysis).

APA-style Research Article Sections

Title, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, References, Appendices, tables, figures.

New Research Idea

Can look at the discussion section, often says if research were to continue what would need to be done differently.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

Testable, Logical, Positive, Refutable.

Operational Definition

Defines a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated.

Validity

Measures accuracy, does the test measure what it says it does?

Face Validity

The appearance of the test items, do they look appropriate?

Construct Validity

Refers to the extent to which a test measures a theoretical construct or trait, gradual accumulation of information from a variety of sources.

Convergent Validity

A test correlating highly with other variables in which theoretically it should relate.

Discriminant/Divergent Validity

A test does not correlate significantly with variable from which it should differ.

Criterion-related Validity

How well a measure predicts the intended outcome.

Concurrent Validity

Gathering the test info (predictor) and performance info (criterion) simultaneously.

Predictive Validity

Gathering the test info (predictor) first, followed by performance info (criterion).

Reliability

Evaluates accuracy, dependability, consistency, repeatability, relatively free of measurement error.

Test-retest Reliability

Evaluates stability - 2 testing sessions and compare (same test two times).

Parallel/equivalent Forms Reliability

Correlating measurements from a sample of individuals who took two tests (ex. Test a and b in Bib 1 and comparing results, should be the same).

Internal consistency/split-half Reliability

Assess how consistently items on a scale relate to one another - one test split in half and compared.

Inter-scorer/Inter-rater Reliability

Evaluates the level of agreement between raters on a measure - different people looking at the same thing and compare (should be pretty similar).

Nominal Scale

Numbers are labels, do not indicate qualitative data (names).

Ordinal Scale

Numbers are ranks, equal distances between numbers do not equal between things measured (places in a race).

Interval Scale

Equal distance between numbers means equal distances in the thing measured, zero is arbitrary (temperature, 0 does not mean no temperature).

Ratio Scale

Interval characteristics plus zero means none of the thing measured is present (weight in general).

Ceiling Effect

The clustering of scores at the high end of a measurement scale, allows little to no possibility of increases in value.

Floor Effect

Clustering of scores at the low end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of decreases in value.

Artifact

A nonnatural feature accidentally introduced into something being observed. An external factor that may influence or distort the measurements.

Nuremberg Code

A set of 10 guidelines, produced by the Nuremburg trial, for the ethical treatment of human participants in research.

Milgram's obedience study

Researchers tested obedience by instructing participants to ask questions to a person and with a wrong answer administer a shock, gradually increasing in intensity up to a level of fatality.

National Research Act

Mandated regulations for the protection of human participants and had the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research created.

Belmont Report

Summarizes basic ethical principles identified in the National Commission.

No harm

The goal in research is to do no harm.

Informed consent

Addresses the need for researchers to tell participants the complete details of the study so that they can give fully informed consent/agreement to the research.

Deception

Occurs when the researchers are not truthful in the informed consent, which can be passive (lie by omission) or active (outright lying about details).

Confidentiality

Ensures as much of the information from the study, including names and personal details, will remain as confidential as possible.

Competence

Ensures the researchers have the adequate knowledge needed regarding the field of study and regarding the animals or people they are dealing with.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Reviews research proposals and tries to catch and stop any ethical concerns.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Reviews research proposals and tries to stop ethical concerns in research involving animals.

Fraud

The explicit effort of a researcher to falsify or misrepresent data.

Detection of fraud

A groundbreaking find cannot be replicated, and peer review helps safeguard against fraud.

Plagiarism

Unethical representation of someone else's ideas or words as one's own.

Techniques to avoid unintentional plagiarism

Take complete notes, identify sources of ideas, use quotation marks for direct quotes, give credit for paraphrasing, and include a complete list of references.