Psych Exam 2

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors receive stimuli from the environment.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Transduction

The process of converting sensory stimuli into electrical signals that the brain can understand.

Absolute threshold

The minimum amount of stimulus needed for detection 50% of the time.

Difference threshold

The smallest change in stimulus that can be detected.

Signal detection theory

A theory that predicts how and when we detect faint stimuli amid background noise, factoring in both sensitivity and decision-making criteria.

Weber’s law

The principle that the just-noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the original stimulus.

Adaptation

The decrease in response to a constant stimulus over time, helping organisms focus on changes in the environment.

Aftereffect

The visual illusion that occurs after staring at a stimulus for a prolonged time, demonstrating adaptation.

Wavelength

Determines color in light.

Amplitude

Determines brightness in light.

Purity

Determines saturation or richness of color.

Cones

Photoreceptors that detect color and are concentrated in the fovea.

Rods

Photoreceptors that detect light and dark, responsible for peripheral and night vision.

Cornea

Protects the eye and focuses light.

Lens

Focuses light onto the retina.

Retina

Converts light into neural signals.

Fovea

The central focus point on the retina.

Optic nerve

Carries visual information to the brain.

Blind spot

Area of the retina with no photoreceptors.

Myopia

Nearsightedness; difficulty seeing distant objects.

Hyperopia

Farsightedness; difficulty seeing nearby objects.

Trichromatic theory

Suggests we have three types of photoreceptors for color vision.

Opponent-process theory

Explains color vision through opposing color systems and afterimages.

Parallel processing

The brain processes multiple aspects of an object simultaneously.

Feature detectors

Neurons that respond to specific features like lines or angles.

Ventral stream

The 'What' pathway responsible for object recognition.

Dorsal stream

The 'Where' pathway responsible for spatial processing and movement.

Frequency

Determines pitch in sound.

Amplitude (sound)

Determines loudness in sound.

Complexity (sound)

Determines timbre or quality of sound.

Outer ear

Funnels sound to the eardrum.

Middle ear

Contains ossicles that transmit vibrations.

Inner ear

Contains cochlea and auditory cilia that convert sound into neural signals.

Frequency theory

Explains low-pitched sounds based on hair cells firing at the same frequency.

Place theory

Explains high-pitched sounds based on different parts of the cochlea responding to frequencies.

Primary auditory cortex

Located in the temporal lobe, processes sound information.

Tonotopic organization

Mapping of sound frequencies along the cochlea and auditory cortex.

Proprioception

The sense of body position and movement.

Balance detection

The vestibular system detects balance.

Primary somatosensory cortex

Processes sensory information related to touch.

Primary olfactory cortex

Processes smells in the temporal lobe.

Top-down processing

Guided by prior knowledge, expectations, or experiences.

Bottom-up processing

Builds perception from sensory data without prior knowledge.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to perceive things in a certain way.

Gestalt psychology

Focuses on organizing sensory information into meaningful wholes.

Figure-ground

Distinguishing objects from the background.

Grouping

Organizing stimuli based on proximity, similarity, continuity, and closure.

Binocular cues

Require two eyes for depth perception.

Monocular cues

Can be perceived with one eye for depth perception.

Perceptual constancy

The ability to perceive an object as unchanging despite changes in sensory input.

Learning

The process of acquiring new knowledge or behaviors through experience.

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together.

Non-associative learning

Learning from repeated exposure to a single stimulus.

Classical conditioning

Associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

The initial stage where the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction

Disappearance of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period.

Generalization

When a conditioned response occurs to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.

Operant conditioning

Learning through consequences, involving reinforcement or punishment.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are likely to be repeated.

Reinforcement

Increases behavior.

Punishment

Decreases behavior.

Primary reinforcer

Inherently rewarding (e.g., food).

Secondary reinforcer

Learned rewards (e.g., money).

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an undesirable stimulus.

Positive punishment

Adding an undesirable stimulus.

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcement after every behavior.

Partial reinforcement

Reinforcement after some behaviors.

Fixed schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses or time.

Variable schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a random number of responses or time.

Superstitious conditioning

When behavior is accidentally reinforced, leading to the false belief that the action caused the outcome (e.g., wearing a "lucky" shirt for good luck)

Latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until there is an incentive.

Insight learning

A sudden realization of a solution to a problem.

Observational learning

Learning by observing others.

Bobo doll experiment

Showed that children imitate aggressive behavior after seeing an adult act aggressively.

Vicarious reinforcement

Learning by seeing others being rewarded.

Vicarious punishment

Learning by seeing others being punished.

Contingent reinforcement

Reinforcement that is directly dependent on a specific behavior.

Noncontingent reinforcement

Reinforcement that is given regardless of behavior, sometimes leading to accidental associations (related to superstitious conditioning).

Delayed reinforcement

A reward given after a time delay following a behavior, which can weaken the association between action and consequence.

Delay discounting

The tendency to devalue rewards that are delayed, preferring immediate but smaller rewards over larger but later ones.