Unit 0-3 Midterm Review AP Psych

Learning

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Habituation

An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Respondent Behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Cognitive Learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that does not elicit a particular response.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Higher-Order Conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Ivan Pavlov

discovered CC

John B Watson

founder of behaviorism (study of observed behavior)

preparedness

biological predisposition to learn associates (tastes and nausea) that have survival value

John Garcia

discovering taste aversion (CC can occur after single pairing and that organisms are biologically predisposed to learn associations)

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

B. F Skinner

developed operant conditioning

Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Edward L. Thorndike

known for Law of Effect

Operant Chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Discriminative Stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment)

Primary Reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Conditioned Reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

Reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous Reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Variable-Ratio Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-Interval Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Variable-interval Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Punishment

An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

instinctive drift

tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Robert Rescarla

Showed CC depends on cognitive process

Edward C Tolman

learning can occur w/o reinforcement & involves mental representations called cognitive maps

albert bandura

know for social learning theory, showing people can learn new behaviors by watching others

Cognitive Map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution

insight learning

solving problems through sudden insight

observational learning

learning by observing others

modeling

observing & imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

neurons scientist believe fire when we perform certain actions or obverse another doing so

prosocial behaviors

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

anti-social behaviors

negative, destructive, harmful behaviors

Schema

concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas

Accommodation

adapting one's current understandings schemas to incorporate new information

Jean Piaget

a Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his research and philosophies on the stages of cognitive development

Sensorimotor Stage

The stage, from birth to about two years of age, during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Object Permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational Stage

The stage for about 2 to 6 or seven years of age, during which a child learns to use the language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Conservation

The principle that property such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Egocentric

Piaget's theory, the inability of the preoperational child to take another's point of view

Concrete Operational

The stage of cognitive development from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Formal Operational

The stage of cognitive development normally about a 12 during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Scaffold

Vyguisky theory - framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

Theory of Mind

peoples ideas about their own and others' mental states- about their feelings perceptions and thoughts in the behavior these might predict

Vygotsky

also study how children think/learn - child’s mind grows through interaction with social - cultural environments

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

universal grammar

humans innate predisposition to understand the principles and rules that govern grammar in all languages

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram--'go car'--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting 'auxiliary' words

Noam Chomsky

languages is an unlearned human trait, separate from other parts of human cognitionap.

aphasia

impairment of language, usually coursed by left hemisphere damage - brocsd or weinicke’s area

Brocas area

helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernickies area

language comprehension and expression

paul broca

damage to left frontal lobe = struggle to speak words

Carl Wernicke

Damage to left temporal lobe = no understanding of speech

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

Linguistic relativism

language influences the way we think

ecological system theory

social environments influences on human development using 5 nested systems ranging from direct to indirect influence

Stranger Anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Attachment

an emotional time with another person; shown in young children by seeking their closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

strange situation

procedure for studying child caregiver attachment, child is placed in unfamiliar environment while caregiver leaves and then returns, and child’s reaction is observed

Secure Attachment

Infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened

Insecure Attachment

Infants are wary of exploring the environment and resist or avoid the mother when she attempts to offer comfort or consolation

temperament

persons characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Basic Trust

Erickson: sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy - formed during infancy by experiences and responsive caregivers.

self concpcet

a sense of one's identity and personal worth

Harry and Margaret Harlow

watched monkeys to learn about how infants react from separation from mother.

Konrad Lorenz

wondered if ducks would follow him if he was first creature they came in contact with after birth