contemporary urban environments

define urbanisation

the increase in the proportion of the population living in urban areas

define urban growth

increase in total population in an urban area

what causes urban growth

industrialisation period of industrial change from agriculture to manufacturing causing workers incomes tor rise, markets for good and services expand, boosting industrial investment and economic growth

technological advances and globalisation

high natrual increase

rural to urban migration push factors eg limited education, poor healthcare, bad wages pull factors eg better healthcare and edcuation, more shops, better infrastructure

what has been the general global pattern of urbanisation

• they have stayed relatively constant until 1800

• post 1800 was when urban populations began to increase (particularly in high income countries)

• amount of people moving to global areas has grown rapidly in mid 20th century

what are some key facts and statistics of the growth in urban populations

• 55% of people live in urban areas (25% increase from 1980)

• urban populations are expected to increase even more by 2050 to 68%

• since 1950, the global urban population has increased from 750 million to 4.2 billion

what is the importance of urbanisation in global affairs

• the organisation of economic production eg concentration of financial services

• the exchange of ideas and creative thinking eg universities

• social and cultural centres eg theatres

• centres of political powers, governments and decision making

what are the social and demographic processes involved with urbanisation

• migration of people from different social and cultural backgrounds into cities

• urbanised areas into cultural hubs eg museums, theatres

• improves access to a wide range of jobs

• demographic in cities is mainly young adults who move for jobs, social life etc as older people move away for better quality of life

what are the economic processes involved with urbanisation

• shift to tertiary sector jobs increasing higher wage jobs and economic development

• rural to urban migration brings lots of people who work and contribute to the economy

• development of business and industries

• economic inequalities could occur if people struggle to maintain good quality of life when cost of living is higher

what are the technological processes involved with urbanisation

• cities often become centres for technological advancement eg silicon valley

• new tech is often introduced to cities first due to a higher demand

what are the political processes involved with urbanisation

• central political institutions are almost always in capitals

• political movement are more prevalent in cities

what are some issues with rapid urbanisation

• not enough jobs or housing

• more cars and pollution

• higher crime rates

• pressure on services

• house price increase

define suburbanisation

where urban areas grow so that rural settlements such as villages become absorbed into urban areas becoming a suburban area

what causes suburbanisation

• improved transport and communication routes between suburbs and city mean people can easily commute to work from rural areas

• increase in popularity of remote work due to COVID and better technology

• high house prices in city forcing people out

• lower crime rates in suburbs

• more idyllic and better environment in suburbs

give an example of suburbanisation

surbiton (small borough of london population of 170 000)

reasons for growth quiet streets, riverside, good schools and shops, convenient location (18 mins from central london on train)

statistics of growth has increased by 24% (around 30 000 since 1970s)

issues congestion (70% parked cars), expensive, house price increase (avg price of £406 000 compared to uk avrg £226 000)

management improvement strategy (widening road, set delivery time for shops), neighbourhood committees involvement in decision making, reclassifying station for cheaper travel, secure bike storage and pedestrian access

what are the positives of suburbanisation

• less need for high rise density housing so more low rise density housing, more idyllic for residents

• more space due to clearance of inner city areas allows for improved communication network or environmental improvement (eg open green spaces)

what are the issues with suburbanisation

• can lead to decline of inner city areas and skilled people as businesses, leads to lower employment opportunities

• communities are split

• buildings look less vacant, less investment

• large income gaps between suburb and inner city leading to social segregation

what is the green belt

land consisting of farmland, woodland and open recreational areas surrounding urban areas on which building is restricted

what is the difference between brownfield and greenfield sites and what are the pros of each

brownfield sites which have been previously built on

pros - more sustainable, infrastructure already exists, new employment opportunities, easier to gain planning permission, accessible public transport

greenfield sites which not been previously built on

pros - in a more pleasant environment, no need to clean up, cheaper land, blank canvas, opportunity for gardens =, appeals to buyers and businesses

define counter urbanisation

process of people moving out of cites into rural areas as people seek better quality of life

what causes counter-urbanisation

push factors

pollution, large industrial areas, economic decline, overcrowding

pull factors

clean air, more space, idyllic countryside, better value housing

what is an example of counter-urbanisation and the issues that it has brought up

st ives, cambridgeshire

reasons for growth picturesque, lower crime rates, increased work flexibility

stats of growth 25% of st ives working pop. commute to london, secondary school intake rise, pressures to increase housing stock

issues bus service is infrequent, new higher status services have forced local business out, pressure on increasing housing stock

positives becoming a more youthful prosperous area, better standard of living

what are the issues with counter-urbanisation

• higher rural house prices can force people out

• more congestion

• less public transport in villages

• overcrowding

• housing shortages

what are the positive of counterurbanisation

• forces inner city areas to regenerate

• helps reduce overcrowding and housing shortages in cities

what is the difference between suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation

• suburbanisation is suburbs/outskirts (become absorbed in the city) whereas counter-urbanisation is further out (rural villages)

• counter has quicker move of more people, sub is more gradual

• counter are less likely to commute on daily basis to city center due to greater distance

what is urban resurgence

the redevelopment of an area after a period of decline leading to the process of people and businesses returning to city centres and inner city areas

(often linked to regeneration of housing and job creation)

what causes urban decline and then resurgence

• deindustrialisation process of social and economic change caused by the removal or reduction of industrial activity leading to urban decline and derelict spaces, low quality of life and unemployment

• decentralisation process of redistributing or dispersing powers, people, industry or retail away from a central location or authority due to cheaper developments, causes a lot of impact on retail jobs

• rise of the service economy more job opportunities pull people to urban areas eg programmers, doctors, banking, teacher due to rising affluence, technological change

cities revive their fortunes by expanding education, grown the number of high skilled high paying professions, new markets for restaurants , gyms, sporting events etc, rebuilding of areas, gentrification, schemes

due to this there is an influx of young people/couples/uni students who are pulled to the city due to employment and education

happened in london (grown by 6% since 2013)

how did deindustrialisation happen in the uk

in cities such as london, liverpool and birmingham due to economic decline lead to population loss, poorer physical environment, inner city high rise development and political problems

due to new technology replacing manufacturing industry, globalisation of production and people moving out due to feeling cramped in a growing city (in 1951 and 81 lots 35% of population in major uk areas)

manufacturing decreased, services increased

what are the positives of urban resurgence

• strengthen their economy

• support local businesses and residents

• create further opportunities for development

explain what happened with the london docklands as an example of urban resurgence

causes larger ships could no longer access the port. unemployment soared, the back to back terraced housing fell into disrepair and there was a lack of transport and leisure facilities

regeneration government established an urban development co-operation and non elected co-operation to make rapid planning decisions, newly built enterprise zone received grants and tax releif

impact

housing went from 83% council owned to 45% owner occupied, good standard apartments

jobs growth in tertiary sector jobs, companies took up office spaces, jobs through shops, restaurants, 80 000 people are now employed in canary wharf

environment lots of trees, green public open spaces, idyllic architecture

what happened in hulme, manchester as an example of urban resurgence

causes high crime rates (30x more likely to get mugged or murdered than the national average), dangerous balconies, risk of disease, deprived unemployed area, fear of violence, no police due to not being classes as a street

regeneration crescents were demolished, government provided £31 million for redevelopment, city south manchester invested £7.5 million into tower blocks that are affordable but attractive

impacts population now exceeds 10 000, 46% of homes are owner occupied, unemployment reduced by 26% form 1989 to 2010, inclusive mixed demography, park, sports centre etc

what are urban policies and some examples of them

strategies chosen by local or central government to manage the development of urban areas and reduce urban problems

urban development corporations ensure effective use of land eg london docklands

enterprise zones areas of land with economic incentives

government grants entice private investors to develop and regenerate urban areas

english partnerships aim to develop derelict areas

new initiatives encourage local communities to become part of the regeneration process

what are the reasons for urban policies and resurgence in britain since 1979

• internet

• shopping

• women working independently

• high educational standards

• immigration

• deindustrialisation

• city living ideals

what do the urban policies aim to do

• reverse the spiral of decline in urban areas

• improve housing conditions

• create new job opportunities

• improve environments

• increase social mix to allow gentrification

what are megacities

urban areas with a very high population, specifically a population of over 10 million people

what stats show that megacities have increased over the years and where they are situated

1950s - 2 megacities

1990 - 10 megacities

2025 - 30 megacities

asia accounts for half of the world megacities

2/3 of megacities are in developing countries

what are the reasons for growth in megacities

• rural to urban migration

• natrual increase

• concentration of wealth and infrastructure

• growth of TNCs and international businesses

• improvements in tech and transport

• geographical location (port cities often grow rapidly due to trade)

what are world cities

a city that acts as a major centre for finance, trade, business, politics, culture not only majorly influencing the region but the whole world

what are features of a world city

• headquarters of TNCs

• transport/hub links

• top unis

• diverse population

• cultural hubs

• political links

• hosts of big sporting events

• stock exchanges

what are the 3 main world cities

london, new york, tokyo

why are world cities associated with economic growth and productivity

it is where most economic activity takes place and this interconnects with other cities

more productive as there are a wider range of creative, able and educated workers as well as good governance structures

define water pollution

contamination of water sources including, rivers, lakes, oceans, aquifers and groundwater

occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharge into water without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds

what are the sources of water pollution

• surface runoff from roads

• industrial waste

• untreated or poorly treated sewage

• rubbish dumps that leak pollutants

what are the consequences of water pollution

• industrial waste contains toxic compounds that damage ecosystems/human health

• stagnant and polluted water creates breeding grounds for malaria-carrying mosquitoes

• water born diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever (major cause of infant mortality in LICs)

• makes recreational areas unsafe and unpleasant

• visual pollution

what are the main water pollution sources in london

sewage overflows from deephams sewage treatment (too small to deal with sewage from NE london and rainwater)

misconnected pipes up to 10% of homes are misconnected and means waste water from showers etc go down the drainpipe instead of sewer pipe

road runoff more than 2.5 million private cars + buses, lorries etc. about 16% of private cars leak oil meaning 291 635 gallons drip onto london’s roads. rain pushes it into rivers with chemicals, grit pollutants etc

how can the main water pollution sources be helped and solved

sewage network of SUDs to hold rain and reduce risk of sewers overflowing into local streets and developments

misconnected pipes building control officers and training residents, plumbers and builders to increasingly understand what they need to do

road runoff rain gardens in car parks (intercept dirty water before it reaches river)

what are the for and against arguments for SUDs in london

for

• cheaper

• easy to maintain

• less risk of discharge

• creates green spaces

• reduces air pollution

against

• aren’t large enough schemes to make impact on london

• cannot hold as much water

what are the main ways to reduce water pollution, why is it easier in HICs?

• low impact development

• legislation, regulation and enforcement

• education and awareness

• appropriate technology

all easier in HICs as they have better infrastructure and access to funding for these initiative

also have stronger government who are more likely to enforce legislation etc than in other countries

describe the process of waste water treatment

what causes problems of water pollution in mumbai

• monsoons, rivers, high tides in low lying country

• open sewers and lack of toilets

• unregulated industrial waste

• urban developments taken over SUDs

• plastic rubbish blocks drains

• poor pipe and sewage system

what are the main issues of water pollution in mumbai

• high quantity of domestic sewage generated by rapidly expanding towns and cities

• diseases such as cholera, dysentery, jaundice and diarrhoea are widespread, water pollution found to be major cause of poor nutrition and under development in children

• people don’t have access to proper sanitation

what are the issues with river mithi

• found that it was 93% domestic sewage and 7% industrial waste

• extends over 17.8km draining at mahim bay and arabian sea, passing through cramped slums and squatters

• first gathered attention during 2005 flooding which left thousands dead

• covered in metal and plastic that people are payed a minimal amount to clean up

how has the river mithi attempted to be revamped, why is this difficult

• MMRDA set out to desilt and revamp 6km stretch of mithi to get rid of unwanted waste however by april 2015 only 91% finished even though was set to finish dec 2014

• attempts have been made by activist groups to change legislation of industrial waste being dumped however government has mainly ignored these issues as its difficult to prevent people from dumping waste etc

• is difficult to implement SUDs due to limited space in densely populated areas

• existing drainage systems may require significant upgrades to integrate SUDs which may not be popular by stakeholders due to cost etc

what are the sources of urban waste

• domestic or residential

• institutional

• commercial/retail

• industrial

• municipal

• hospitality

what issues does waste create

• inadequate waste disposal links to air and water pollution

• untreated or uncollected waste leads to health problems

• space is running out for landfill

• cost and logistics of waste disposal and treatment is high

• waste is a large source of methane (greenhouse gas) contributing to climate change

define waste streams

flows of specific waste from its source through to recovery, recycling and disposal

varies in different countries due to development facilities and public participation

unregulated waste streams lead to environmental problems

what is the waste hierarchy

reduce

reuse

recycle

recovery

landfill

what is an example of the dangers of e-waste

agbogbloshie, ghana commercial district near slum

alleged to be centre of legal and illegal exportation network for environmental dumping of e-waste from HICs

population consists of economic migrants

benefits accra as the informal employment provides a living

however bad health issues due to water and air pollution resulting in average life expectancy being 25

what is incineration

general waste is burned at high temperatures and under carefully controlled conditions to produce electricity and heat. referred to as energy from waste, an increasing number of cities are processing waste in this way

what are the positive and negative environmental impacts of incineration

strengths

• less waste to landfill

• energy used to power homes and businesses

• less expensive in long run

• creates jobs

weaknesses

• converts waste into greenhouse gases such as C0₂ and methane contributing to global warming

• fumes may have effects on public health due to air pollution

• initially expensive

how do attitudes to incineration vary from HICs to LICs

creates jobs in both however more likely to occur in HICs as they have better funding for the expensive plants to be built and maintain it

what is landfill

site for disposing waste materials by burial, often designed with layers to control environmental impact

what are the positive and negative environmental impacts of landfill

strengths

• methane can be vented and used as fuel

• area to get rid of waste that otherwise could not be disposed of

weaknesses

• attracts vermin, flies and scavenging birds

• wind blown material becomes litter

• produces methane

• toxins percolate into ground contaminating groundwater, having bigger effect on rivers and water quality

• bad smell

• landfill tax increases fly tipping by 5.25%

• if used as building site in future, may cause ground to sink

how do attitudes to landfill vary from HICs to LICs

more popular in LICs as they do not has of high as an initial cost.

HICs have more awareness and funding to move away from landfill

however london and mumbai both use landfill, difficult to find space due to dense population

what is recycling

process of collecting and processing materials that would otherwise be thrown away then turning them into new products

what are the positive and negative environmental impacts of recycling

strengths

• organic waste can be composted and sold to enrich garden soil

• resource recovery gives reprocessing of recycled material into new products

• less landfill

weaknesses

• public collection points can produce litter

• electrical waste contains toxic components which can be dangerous when dismantling

how do attitudes to recycling vary from HICs to LICs

varies majorly

curitiba in brazil has recycling rate of 70% whilst london has 33%

HICs such as germany have a financial reward for recycling to encourage it

less awareness in places such as mumbai so does not happen as often

what is unregulated waste disposal

disposing of waste in open dumps, some of which is unregulated ( not supervised by regulation of law)

what are the negative environmental impacts of unregulated waste disposal

if not properly disposed then it can be breeding ground for insects, vermin and scavenging animals that can pass on air and water born diseases contaminating ground and surface water by leachate

how do attitudes to unregulated waste disposal vary from HICs to LICs

mumbai’s rapid urbanisation has outpaced waste management systems causing residents to feel angry about effects so create action groups however government is bad at implementing the infrastructure to help these issues

copenhagen has a more proactive approach due to awareness and implemented government regulations to encourage waste disposal with residents

what is reducing and reusing

reducing waste from packaging (eg plastic) by using more carboard that can be recycled

reusing material for buildings or clothes can reduce them going to landfill and reducing need for products to be made

what are the positive environmental impacts of reducing and reusing

• less landfill and pollution

• less new products have to be made, less industrial waste

• increases environmental awareness

how do attitudes to reducing and reusing vary from HICs to LICs

LICs may have a throw away culture, increasing concerns about health may cause people to throw away food that is near or just past its sell by date, resulting in higher levels of food waste

HICs may have more environmental awareness about the impacts of excess waste do are more likely to reuse and recycle

what is submergence

where waste is placed into water to dispose of it. can increase toxins in water and impact habitats

what are the negative environmental impacts of submergence

• illegal

• can release toxic or radioactive substances damaging ocean ecosystems

• hard to manage

how do attitudes to submergence vary from HICs to LICs

banned by international convention

but according to UN, some LICs such as somalia have been dumping waste into waters, taking advantage of the lack of governance in the country

what is trade waste

international trade of waste between countries for further treatment, disposal or recycling

what are the positive and negative environmental impacts of trade waste

weaknesses

• countries often do not have safe recycling processes or facilities so hazardous waste is not properly disposed of or treated leading to contamination of surrounding environment

strengths

• international laws such as the basel convention have been introduced to prevent movement of hazardous waste

how do attitudes to trade waste vary from HICs to LICs

more awareness in HICs however although uk want to improve waste disposal, big companies such as sainsbury’s and curry find loopholes to send waste to developing countries

places such as agbogbloshie are at forefront of problems however they are willing to work for that living even though their life expectancy is averaging 28

why did waste management become an issue in amsterdam

due to increasing wealth, more goods were produced and consumed leading to more waste generation

there was a lack of space for this growing amount of rubbish so were forced to look at other options that were not landfill

what was amsterdam’s lansink ladder approach

avoid creating waste, recover raw materials, generate energy by incinerating residual waste then only dump what is left

gov. increased landfill tax, preventing waste processing companies form using landfill and looking at other methods

by 2006, country already reached targets of landfill directive set for 2016

what is avfal energue bedrijf (AEB) incineration plant benefits in amsterdam

• produces 1 million MWh of electricity annually as well s 300 000 gigajoules of heat

• 64% of waste ends up being recycled

• converts 99% of municipal waste into sustainable energy and raw materials

what is evidence of waste disposal success in amsterdam

only 2 to 3% of total waste generation goes to landfill out of 60 million tonnes per year

define urban form

physical characteristics of a city such as its layout, size and landuse

what are the physical and human factors affecting urban form

physical water, resource availability, coasts, topography

human planning, industrialisation, government policy, trading centres, land value

what are the differences between urban form in HICs eg london compared to LICs eg mumbai

characteristic	HIC	LIC
CBD	central zone of retail, businesses and entertainment	central zone of shops, businesses and entertainment
land value	high in city centre and decreases with distance	high in city centre and decreases with distance
housing	housing value increases with distance from the centre high density, high rise, with wages unable to keep up with rents and costs many areas of poverty, segregation and ethnic minorities land value is lower in rural and semi-rural areas, houses are usually well spaced, larger, newer and more expensive. attracts families, the wealthy and high wage earners, keeping areas exclusive and high priced.  housing estates are constructed with higher density living but with gardens and good access routes. prices are still high, but can be more affordable than closer to inner city	housing value decreases with distance high density, but there is also high cost, luxury housing to accommodate wealthy immigrants and business executives usually zones of medium-cost housing which may have begun as informal  but gradually been improved through government planning and grants low-cost housing on outskirts/fringes of the city with informal housing and limited (if any) access to services - water and power poverty, informal employment with low-wages are common. Poorer migrants tend to settle here
urban fringe	science parks, retail parks, super and hypermarkets along with light industry are constructed here. land is cheaper and has good access to other parts of the country	industrial areas are built along transport links and centred around informal settlements to attract high turn over of cheap labour

what are edge cities

self-contained settlements which have emerged beyond the original city boundary, often developed close to major roads or airports and lack structure

what are the positives of edge cities

• modern and extensive facilities

• opportunities for new business

what are the negatives of edge cities

• can lead to social segregation

• shops, offices etc can become decentralised

what is an example of an edge city

newcastle great park major housing and commercial development built on a greenfield site within the greenbelt of newcastle

pros

• 2500 new homes

• 80 hectares of commercial development which could generate jobs

• integrated transport plan

• full time ranger

• easy access to airport

cons

• house prices are £188 000, well above average wage of people in newcastle

• environmentalist concerns about red squirrel and deer populations

• will increase traffic volumes

what is a fortress development

landscapes designed around security, protection, surveillance and exclusion eg cctv, railings and fencing, alarms, streetlights, speed bumps

what are the positives of fortress developments

• better security

• reduced crime rates