BIOL 291 Lab Practical 1

Solution

mixture of 2 or more substances

Solute

substance that gets dissolved

Solvent

substance that does the dissolving

Tonicity

effects of various osmotic solutions

Hypertonic

in 2 solutions, the solution with the higher osmolarity

Hypotonic

in comparing 2 solutions, the solution with lower osmolarity

Isotonic

a solution with an osmolarity that does not result in water movement

Diffusion

passive movement of molecules from higher to lower concentration

Osmosis

diffusion of solvent molecules across a semi-permiable membrane

Osmotic Pressure

the force of osmotic water movement

Directional Terminology

Proximal and Distal are used for limbs; Superior and Inferior are used for the trunk/main body

Anatomical Language

Microscope Labeled 1

Ocular Lenses

magnifies object 10x

Base

supports the microscope

Light Source

provides light

Iris Diaphragm

controls the intensity and size of the cone of light that is projected upward

Objective Lenses

magnifies objects at 4x, 10x, or 40x

Coarse Focus

adjusts the focus with broad adjustments

Fine Focus

adjusts the focus on a smaller scale

Condenser

collects and focuses the light onto specimen

Microscope Labeled 2

Arm

supports the microscope and connects the base

Brightness Control

controls the brightness of the light

Y-Axis Stage Control Knob

moves the slide vertically on the stage

X-Axis Stage Control Knob

moves the slide horizontally on the stage

Epithelial Tissue

Where do we encounter epithelia?

• outer surfaces

  • skin, outer surfaces of organs

• inner surfaces of hollow organs/structures

  • lungs, glands, bladder, intestines, stomach, etc.

Main Functions of Epithelia

• protection – from mechanical abrasion & chemical contact

• secretion – sweat, mucus, digestive enzymes, hormones, etc.

• absorption – nutrients, wastes, etc.

• sensory – embedded sensory neurons to detect changes

Classification of Epithelia

• Number of cell layers

• Cell shape

Classification of Epithelial Tissues

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Function: Absorption and secretion

Found in the glandular tissue and ducts, kidney tubules, etc.

Simple Squamous Epithlelium

Functions: Diffusion or filtrations

Found in kidneys and lungs

Adipose tissue consists of fat and is round; space in between

Non-Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Not exposed to external environment

Function: provides protection from mechanical stress and abrasion

Found in any surface with space above it (vessel lumen)

Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Has 5 layers rather than 4 (top layer flakes off)

Exposed to mechanical stress and abrasion; protects skin

Function: barrier to outside mechanical stress

Found outside the skin

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Functions: secretion or absorption

Found in the stomach, small intestine, etc.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Cilia is found on apical surface

Function: traps and secretes foreign material; mucus secretion

Found in the respiratory tract and male reproductive tract; trachea and bronchi

Keratin

tough protein that is the structural material for hair, nails, horns, claws, and the outer layer of human and animal skin

Connective Tissue

• Functions:

  • Provides structural support & framework – bone, cartilage

  • Protection – adipose, dense irregular

  • Transport – blood & lymph

  • Energy storage – adipose tissue

  • Defense – blood (WBCs)

• Wide variety of tissues but share 3 common components:

1. Contain specialized cells

2. Extracellular protein fibers (collagen, elastin, etc.)

3. Extracellular ground substance (fluid, gelatinous material, calcium salts, etc.)

**Together, the protein fibers and ground substance make up the extracellular matrix

Areolar Connective Tissue

Functions: diffusion, for nutrients and waste

Found under epithelial tissue; basement membrane, basal lamina

Adipose Tissue

Functions: fills space, provides padding, shock absorption, and insulation for protection

Found in the buttocks, breasts, and side of the body

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Packed tightly together, parallel

Functions: can withstand one-directional stress

Found in ligaments, tendons, and aponeuroses

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Not in a uniform pattern

Function: can stretch in many directions; allows for free movement

Found in the dermis, joints, liver, epidermis, etc.

Bone (Osseous) Tissue

Calcified with embedded collagen fibers

Function: reduces brittleness and gives flexibility

Collagen is found in bone tissue

Hyaline Cartilage

Collagen fibers are found in hyaline cartilage

Firm, gelatinous material

Found in the ends of bones

Process

an often sharp, quasi finger-like projection away from the main part of the bone

Styloid Process

a relatively long, thin process

Spinous Process

a long bony projection on the posterior side of each vertebra

Tuberosity

a moderate-sized prominence (a medium bump)

Articulation

joint, where two bones come together

Condyle

large rounded bump that is used to form a joint with another bone

Epicondyle

a projection closely associated with a condyle, since “epi” means “above,” this is, above the condyle

Head, Shaft, Neck

Head: a rounded structure (usually on the proximal epiphysis); an epiphysis refers to the expanded ends of long bones

Shaft/Diaphysis: the main midsection of a long bone

Neck: the segment between the head and shaft of a bone

Facet

a flat, smooth surface

Fossa

a depression in a bone (often named after the structure that fits in it)

Fontanelle

a space between the bones of the skull in an infant or fetus, where ossification is not complete and the sutures not fully formed

Suture

a type of joint between the bones of the skull where the bones are held tightly together by fibrous tissue

Foramen (Foramina)

holes or openings in a bone, usually through which nerves and blood vessels pass

Canal

a tubular passage or tunnel in a bone

Sulcus

a groove

Alveolar Process

also called the alveolar bone, is the thick ridge of bone which contains the tooth sockets

Ligament

band of dense regular connective tissue that connects bone to bone

Aponeurosis

sheet of dense regular connective tissue that takes the place of a tendon in flat muscles having a wide area of attachment

Origin, Insertion

Origin: attachment of a muscle on the more stable bone

Insertion: attachment of a muscle on the more moveable bone

Action

what happens when the more mobile bone is brought toward the more stable bone during a muscular contraction

Tendon

dense regular connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone

Agonist, Antagonist

Agonist: sometimes called the prime mover, is the muscle that provides the primary force driving the action

Antagonist: is in opposition to a prime mover in that it provides some resistance and/or reverses a given movement.

Synergist

a muscle that acts in concert with another muscle to enhance its effect

Synovial Joint

most common type of joint in the body. presence of a joint cavity, fluid-filled space is the site at which the articulating surfaces of the bones contact each other. the articular surfaces of bones are covered with smooth articular carilage.

Extension, Flexion

Extension: a movement that increases the angle between 2 body parts

Flexion: a movement that decreases the angle between 2 body parts

Hypertension

to extend so that the angle between bones of a joint is greater than normal

Abduction, Adduction

Abduction: move away from the midline of the body

Adduction: move toward the midline of the body

Circumduction

movement of a limb or extremity so that the distal end describes a circle while the proximal end remains fixed

Lateral & Medial Rotation

Lateral Rotation: movement of a joint, around its long axis, away from the midline of the body

Medial Rotation: movement of a joint, around its long axis, toward the midline of the body

Eversion, Inversion

Eversion: turn the sole laterally or outward

Inversion: turn the sole medially or inward

Supination, Pronation

Supination: turn the palm anteriorly

Pronation: turn the wrist and hand from palm facing front to palm facing back

Dorsiflexion, Plantar Flexion

Dorsiflexion: flexion of the ankle joint and elevation of the sole

Plantar Flexion: extends the ankle joint and elevates the heel

Depression, Elevation

Depression: move a structure inferiorly

Elevation: move a structure superiorly