PHIL 2830 T1

What is philosophy?

The love of wisdom (Philo = love, Sophia = wisdom).

What are the four main branches of philosophy?

• Epistemology

• Metaphysics

• Logic

• Philosophical ethics

What is epistemology?

The study of knowledge and how we know what is true.

What is empiricism?

The view that knowledge comes primarily from experience and observation.

What is rationalism?

The view that knowledge comes primarily from reason.

What is metaphysics?

The study of reality and existence.

What kinds of questions does metaphysics ask?

Does God exist? Do we have free will? What is reality?

What is logic?

The study of good reasoning and valid arguments.

What is an argument?

A series of statements where premises support a conclusion.

What are premises?

Statements that provide reasons or evidence.

What is a conclusion?

The claim supported by the premises.

What is a deductive argument?

An argument where true premises guarantee a true conclusion.

What is a simple example of a deductively valid form?

• All A’s are B

• X is an A

• Therefore, X is B

What is an inductive argument?

An argument where true premises make the conclusion likely but not certain.

What is a simple example of a non-deductively strong form?

• Most A’s are B

• X is an A

• Therefore, X is B

What is a sound argument?

A deductive argument that is

• valid

• has true premises.

What is a cogent argument?

A non-deductive argument that is

• A strong form

• All true premises

What is ethics?

The study of right and wrong, duty, justice, and moral responsibility.

What are the three areas within philosophical ethics?

• Meta-ethics

• Normative ethics

• Applied ethics

What is meta-ethics?

The study of the nature and meaning of moral judgments.

What is normative ethics?

The study of theories that determine what actions are right or wrong.

What are the three influential normative ethical theories?

• Utilitarianism

• Deontology (Kantian Ethics)

• Virtue Ethics

What is applied ethics?

Applying ethical theories to real-world issues like business, medicine, and the environment.

Why is business ethics important?

It helps businesses make ethical decisions involving customers, employees, society, and the environment.

What did the Enron scandal demonstrate?

That dishonesty, fraud, and unethical leadership can destroy companies and public trust.

What is morality?

Principles about right and wrong behaviour.

What are moral standards?

Standards that guide behaviour affecting human well-being.

What are the three characteristics of moral standards?

• They affect human well-being

• Take priority over other standards

• Require good reasons to justify them.

Why do moral standards take priority?

Because moral obligations outweigh personal gain, convenience, or profit.

Why must moral standards be supported by reasons?

Because morality depends on rational justification, not authority alone.

What is etiquette?

Rules of polite or socially acceptable behaviour.

How is etiquette different from morality?

Etiquette concerns manners, while morality concerns right and wrong.

Can poor etiquette become a moral issue?

Yes, if it disrespects or harms others.

How is law different from morality?

Something can be legal but immoral or illegal but morally right.

Do law and morality overlap?

Yes, many laws reflect moral principles.

What are professional codes of ethics?

Rules governing behaviour within a profession.

Should professional codes always be followed?

No, they should be questioned if they conflict with morality.

What organizational pressures can threaten ethical behaviour?

Groupthink and diffusion of responsibility.

What is groupthink?

Pressure to conform to the group's opinions instead of thinking independently.

What is diffusion of responsibility?

The belief that responsibility belongs to the group rather than the individual.

Divine Command Theory

X is morally right iff God commands X

X is morally wrong iff God forbids X

What is a major criticism of Divine Command Theory?

It makes morality seem arbitrary and dependent solely on God's commands.

What is ethical relativism?

The belief that morality depends on what society accepts.

Why is ethical relativism criticized?

It cannot explain moral progress or criticize unjust societies.

What is conscience?

An inner sense that motivates people to do what they believe is morally right.

Is conscience always correct?

No, conscience can be mistaken.

What are personal values?

Beliefs about what is important in life.

What are examples of important moral values?

Honesty, fairness, respect, and responsibility.

What is integrity?

Consistently acting according to moral principles.

What can threaten personal integrity?

Peer pressure, organizational pressure, fear, and personal gain.

What is moral reasoning?

Using logic and evidence to reach moral conclusions.

What are the three parts of a moral argument?

Moral principle, factual claim, and moral conclusion.

What is the first premise in a moral argument?

A moral standard or principle.

What is the second premise in a moral argument?

A factual claim.

What is the conclusion of a moral argument?

A moral judgment.

What is a valid argument?

An argument where the conclusion must follow if the premises are true.

What is the difference between a valid and sound argument?

A sound argument is valid and has true premises.

What is dumping?

Exporting products banned or considered unsafe in one country to another country.

What are examples of dumped products?

Dangerous pesticides, unsafe toys, hazardous consumer products, and unsafe medical devices.

What argument supports dumping?

Countries have the right to make their own decisions about acceptable risks.

What argument opposes dumping?

Knowingly selling dangerous products harms people and is unethical.

Why is human well-being central to ethics?

Because moral standards are designed to protect and promote people's welfare.

What questions does business ethics address?

Product safety, advertising, pricing, employee rights, discrimination, whistleblowing, and corporate responsibility.

What is whistleblowing?

Reporting unethical or illegal behaviour within an organization.

Why is whistleblowing difficult?

It may conflict with loyalty to an employer and involve personal risks.

What is discrimination?

Unfair treatment of people based on characteristics such as race, sex, or age.

What is affirmative action?

Policies intended to increase opportunities for historically disadvantaged groups.

What is the main purpose of moral reasoning?

To justify ethical decisions using logical arguments and evidence.