Human Geography

Weeks 1-3

4 W’s of Geography

Why, How, What, Where

“What’s Where, Why there, and Why care”

Space

Aerial extent of something, absolute and relative

Absolute: Measured in units

Relative: Measured by perception, experience, knowledge, and differs between observers

Scale

Territorial extent of analysis

Location

A point in space, absolute, relative, and nominal

Absolute: Same between observers

Relative: Varies between observers, usually in reference to another location

Nominal: Identity according to commonly known names

Note Site and Situation

Place

A location which has acquired meaning or significance, note sense of place

Sense of Place: A place that elicits a communal sense of attachment

Region

An area containing shared characteristics, physical or cultural. 3 types:

Regionalization: Process of classifying or differentiating regions

Formal Region: Every location or person exhibits a common characteristic

Functional Region: Organized around a focal point, characteristics decrease as distance from focal point increases

Vernacular (Perceptual) Region: A region defined by cultural identity

Distance

The space between two entities; basis for describing diversity within an area. Both Absolute and Relative

Absolute Distance: Measured in units

Relative Distance: Measured through experience. Relative distance is affected by time, money, and state of mind.

Distance affects our interactions with places

3 Key Concepts of Spatial Organization

Interaction, Communication, and Movement

How to describe the Concepts of Spatial Organization

Distribution, Diffusion, Spatial Interaction

Distribution

Patterns identified through varying distances between objects. Understood through Density, Concentration, and Pattern

Density: Frequency of phenomenon within area

Concentration: How phenomena are spread through the area (clustered or dispersed)

Pattern: Geographic arrangement of phenomena in space

Diffusion

The process of geographic phenomena spreading over time. One of two ways to understand connections between people and places

Cultural Diffusion + Types

The spread of an idea or innovation from its source (hearth) outward. There are two forms:

Relocation Diffusion: Geographic phenomena are physically moved to a new location (migration, trade)

Expansion Diffusion: Spread of ideas or innovations without the movement of people

Expansion Diffusion + Types

Spread of ideas or innovation without the movement of people. There are two forms:

Contagios Diffusion (Nearest Neighbor): Spreading of an innovation or idea through contact from person to person

Heirarchical Diffusion: Spreading of an idea or innovation top-down from influential people

Interaction

The extent of the nature of linkages between places; related to the distances between places and the physical and intangible connections between them

Can be affected by Distance and Site-specific qualities like Accessibility and Connectivity

Tobler’s First Law of Geography

Everything is related to each other, but closer things are more related than distant things

Distance Decay

The effect of distance on spatial interactions; interactions decrease as distance increases.

Friction of Distance

Ideas and people have more difficulty spreading as distance increases

Accessibility

Relative ease of interaction + communication

Connectivity

Direct or indirect linkages between two or more locations (telephone wires, roads, trails)

Maps

Representations of the earth’s surface and its geographic features

Also subject to bias as the map maker can leave out place names, or it can be distorted by the culture that makes it

Global Grid

Two imaginary arc systems to create a grid in absolute space

Latitude: Distance from the equator is measured in angles. Sun’s relative position sets the equator (horizontal)

Longitude: Political decisions set the prime meridian and date line (vertical)

Map Scale

Relates map distance to absolute distance

Map Types

Reference and Thematic

Reference Maps

Illustrate the location and combine selected data (elevation, topographic)

Thematic Maps

Illustrates analyses and patterns not easily seen

Types of Thematic Maps

1) Dot map - Differences indicated by a number of dots of identical value

2) Choropleth map - Differences indicated by shades, patterns, or colours

3) Isopleth map - links points with the same measurement, illustrating differences in variables

4) Cartograms - Uses a measurement as an area, distance indicated by distortion of area size

Remote Sensing

Increased data perceived by viewing from a distance using a device (drone, UAV)

Can also include aerial photographs

Computer-assisted Cartography

Maps generated from a computer. Makes maps more available and widespread.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Satellite tracks position through transmitters. Requires at least three satellites to function.

Has controversies:

• can be participatory

• Extensive data collection

• Socially variable participation

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Adds analysis to data collection, storage, and mapping

Overlays multiple datas in a single map, using layers to reach more informed conclusions

Helps us see intangible trends

How to become a better geographer

Understanding how processes at different scales interact.

Human environmental impact

• Small changes in activity have a cumulative effect

• New technology increased energy use

• New lifestyles enabled by emerging technology

• Increasing population

• Interconnections increasing global impact of change

Holocene vs Anthropocene Age

Humans are a force of nature, our activities reach a global scale often causing unforseen troubles

Ecology

Study of the relationship between organisms and their environments

Ecosystem

A community of interdependent organisms and their interactions with the environment within a specific area

Energy

The ability to do work

Technology

Ability to convert energy into a useful form for humans

Resources + the two types

Resources are culturally defined (as culture changes, so do resources)

2 basic types

• Stock (non-renewable)

  • Renewable (Continually forming)

Cultural attitudes affecting resources

• Technology

• Political Organization

• Economic Organization

• Social Organization

Fossil fuel replacements + controversies

Hydropower

• Cheap, but downstream impacts (causes humans to move, damages original ecosystem, changes environment)

Solar Power

Wind Power

• Unreliable power as wind speeds vary, ugly, low frequency sounds emitted causes health problems

Biofuels

• Ethanol from maize, sugars, other grains. Taking food away from hungry populations

Nuclear

• Lots of energy generated, but waste disposal? Facility failure? Cost to construct?)

Contentions regarding environmental concerns

1) Economic goals conflict with environmental goals

2) Geopolitical dimensions (environmentalists from rich countries want to impose their standards onto poorer countries)

3) Individual and group behaviour (should we enforce climate rules onto individuals?)

Human impacts on vegitation

Modifications to vegetation lead to changes in landscape, climate, soil, water, and fauna. Takes forms of

• Deforestation

• Fire

• Plant domestication (agriculture)

• Tropical Rainforest removal

• Desertification

Human impacts on animals

Human activities affect animal populations

• Introducing invasive animals to places where they don’t belong

• Destroying habitats as humans move into or extract resources from these areas

Human impacts on Land, Soil, Air, and Water

• Land - we degrade the land through extraction of resources. As population increases, Earth loses arable land.

• Soil - Agricultural activities affect soil the most (cause erosion, salinity)

• Air - Certain chemicals deplete the ozone layer, which absorbs UV solar radiation

• Water - Two key issues (scarcity and contamination)

Human impacts on Climate

Human impacts on climate are most damaging

Two key areas

• What extent of the change is caused by humans and what is naturally occurring?

• How big is the climate impact that humans have created?

Natural greenhouse effect

Greenhouse gases balance insolation and losses of energy from Earth to Space

• Atmosphere traps some outgoing radiation, but when humans add more gases (CO2, SO2, N2O, Methane), more outgoing radiation is trapped in the atmosphere

  • Human activity changes the composition of our atmosphere and its ability to function

Responding to human-induced climate change

• Progress is difficult as

  • Uncertainty determining patterns at a local scale

  • Limited success with international accords (Kyoto Protocol 1997, Paris Accord 2015)

Climate Ideologies

Catastrophist

• Those who view the climate situation in totally negative terms (looking to a future full of mass extinction, flooding, food shortages etc.)

Cornucopians

• Those who argue that the gravity of the situation is exaggerated; advances in science will continue to create resources

Sustainability

Terms reflecting the interdependence of the economy, the environment, and social well-being and the need to maintain all three components

Sustainable Development

Development that accounts for environmental, economic, and social well-being simultaneously

Four principles of sustainable development

• Humans are a part of nature

• Account for environmental costs in economic activities

• All humans deserve to achieve acceptable living standards. Extreme income inequality does not foster peace

• Small local impacts can have global consequences

Globalization

• Increases the quantity and speed of goods, information, and people moving across national boundaries

• The change in relative distance between locations

  • Time, money, effort required to travel longer distances is decreasing with globalization

How to Conceptualize Globalization

A process that erodes national boundaries, intergates national economies, cultures, technologies, and governance.

Creates complex networks of interdepepnence.

Local vs. Global

• People still desire regional identity and culture

• Distance still constrains people to act locally in the physical world, as interactions are partially determined by distance, and interactions define life

Principle of Least Effort

Location decisions minimize the effort required to overcome the friction of distance (distance being distance in space, or time, cost social status)

Time-Space Convergence

Travel times between locations generally decreases with technological innovations

Overcoming Distance in the Globalized World

• Transportation

• Trade

• Transnational Corporations (TNCs)

• Communication

Globalization and Transportation

3 key ways in which transportation contributes

• Intensity (Filling of space)

• Diffusion (Spread across space)

• Articulation (Interconnectivity)

Containerization

Transporting everything in standardized modular containers which can be carried on boats, trains, and trucks. Saves time (reduces cargo handling) and costs (lower shipping costs)

Globalization and Trade

Only happens when the market price in one area will account for the production and transportation costs

Subsidies

Money given by government to industries or businesses to lower production costs. Tool used by government to influence market outcome.

Commodity Chains

Chain of processes

• Gathering resources

• Manufacturing goods from resources

• Distributing goods to consumers

Factors Affecting Trade

• Distance

• Resource base

• Labour force size and quality

• Available capital

• Relations between countries

Tariff

Tax imposed on imports from other countries

5 Stages of Regional Integration

• Free Trade Area - Removal of some trade tariffs within a group of states

• Customs Union - Free trade within member countries, collective enforcement of customs onto non-member countries

• Common Market - Acts as a customs union, early form of Economic Union, allows free flow of capital and labour between member states. Collective enforcement of trade policy onto non-member states

• Economic Union - Acts as a Common Market, unified currency and tax features. International economic integration.

• Supranational Bodies - Multinational unions in which member countries give authority over a certain issue to the union.

Globalization and Transnational Corporations (TNCs)

Corporations operating in more than one country, mainly based in MDCs but expanding to LDCs

• Take advantage of place-based attributes (resources, cheap labour, large labour force)

• Able to engage in Foreign Direct Investment

• Command and control economies as they can move capital, goods, and information between countries

Foreign Direct Investment

Direct investment by a government/corporation into another country, often in the form of a manufacturing plant

International Division of Labour

Tendency for high-wage and high-skill employment (service industry) to be located in MDCs and low-skill and low-wage employment (manufacturing, processing) to be located in LDCs

Globalization and Communication

Near-instantaneous communication across the globe through

Mass-Communications Media and Information and Communication Technology (ICTs). Contributes heavily to economic globalization.

Digital Divide

Differences in access to information technology and the internet

• MDCs vs LDCs

Social Media’s role in globalization

• Interactive way to overcome distance

• Can share info and knowledge on a global scale, can influence millions

• used to plan grassroots movements/protests

• Manipulated for cultural + political control

  • Highly concentrated ownership

  • Profit motive controls information in feeds

  • All actions made on the site are stored in overseas data centres; data can be recalled and used to track individual preferences and actions

Three Globalization Theses

Hyperglobalist

Skeptic

Transformationalist

Hyperglobalist Perspective

We are in the global era, optimistic view of globalism

Pro Globalization

• Could erode the power of nation states

• Could create a single, global economy

Skeptic Perspective

What we call globalization is increased regionalism (NA, EU, Asia trading internally) (Critical view)

Mostly anti-globalization

• Nation-states are still central

• Global influence on culture is limited

• MDCs are driving the globalization process, causing global wealth inequality

Transformationalist Perspective

Extent and influence of globalization is exaggerated

Anti globalization

• Supported through trading statistics

• Globalization is real and requires regulation to optimize it

Measuring Globalization

Measuring at a national scale

Measuring economic connections and interactions

• Economic Indicators

• Social and Cultural Indicators

• Politcal Indicators

Economic Globalization

Caused by dispersion of manufacturing processes and distribution across boundaries

Traced by flow of capital flows to locations (FDIs)

• shaped by colonial globalization (primary activity in colonies, manufacturing in core countries)

• dispersion of manufacturing enabled by TNC organization

Trade encouraged by international institutions (IMF, WTO, World Bank)

Globalization Theses on Economic Globalization

Hyperglobalist

• deregulation and convergence; markets move from nations to global networks

Skeptical

• Trading blocs emerge; trading activity becomes more embedded in nation-states

Transformationalist

• Global networks and pre-existing stuctures coexist; nation states and transnationals govern markets

Cultural Globalization

Increasing cultural homogeneity across the world

• Western-dominant

• Perhaps not one-way? (Asian influence in Western world)

Globalization Theses on Cultural Globalization

Hyperglobalist

• New global civilization, universalization of global cultures

Skeptic

• National identities differentiated and relitivized

Transformationalist

• New global and local hybrid cultures

Political Globalization

Variety of Integration processes (United Nations post WWII)

• Unequal influence of member states

Globalization Theses on Political Globalization

Hyperglobalist

• nation state replaced by “natural” region state

Skeptic

• Boundaries retrenched; sovereignty surrendered to regional groupings

Transformationalist

• three scales of governance

  • global, national, and local

Arguments opposing globalization

Massive inequalities favouring the core

• Favours export over local sustainable economy

• Increasing pressure for economic growth leads to environmental damage

Arguments for globalization

• May reduce poverty

• More participation in economic decision making

• may promote democracy, increased respect, and pluralism