Foundations of Behavioral Neuroscience Exam 2

Hearing

Audible variations in air pressure

Frequency Hearing

Type of hearing based on the number of cycles of sound waves (High Pitch = more cycles, low pitch = less waves)

Intensity Hearing

Type of hearing based on how loud the sound is (High decibels = louder, low decibels = quieter)

Ultrasound

Sounds that exist above our hearing capabilities (Too high of a pitch)

Infrasound 

Sounds that exist below our hearing capabilities (Too low of a pitch)

Pinna

Outside part of the ear that funnels sound into the ear

Ear Canal

Part of the ear that sound waves first travel down

Ear Drum

Part of the ear that gets hit by sound waves in the ear canal, shaped like a drum

Hammer Bone

One of the three smallest bones in the body located inside of the ear, vibrates from the eardrum

Anvil Bone

One of the three smallest bones in the body located inside the ear, vibrates from the hammer bone

Stirrup

One of the three smallest bones in the body located inside the ear, vibrates from the anvil bone

Attenuation Reflex

A reflex that occurs when the ears hear a loud sound, muscles will stiffen inside the ear, protects your ear from loud noises in everyday life (your own voice, continuous, focus on specific noises)

Cochlea

Snail shaped bone where most of the hearing process takes place

Oval Window

Part of the ear that receives noises from the stirrup, causes fluid in the cochlea to move

Baslar Membrane

“Seaweed” membranes moved by cochlea fluid

Cillia

Hairs that are moved when the cochlea vibrates from sound waves

Tectorial Membrane

Membrane inside the ear that helps the cillia move

Tip Links

Links connected to the cilia cells

Pupil

Part of the eye that allows light to strike the retina, shrinks and enlarges based on the amount of light

Lens

Part of the eye that allows it to focus on objects at different distances

Rods

Type of photoreceptors that are responsible for vison at low light, although they have no color vison, and have low spatial acuity

Cones

Type of photoreceptor that are better in high levels of light, have color vison, and have high spatial acuity

Fovea

Type of photoreceptor that contains all cones and no rods, has the best acuity (focus)

One Photoreceptor to One Bipolar Cell to One Ganglia Cell

One to One to One

Receptive Field

Area in the visual space that excites a particular cell

Lateral Inhibition

Light activates Photoreceptors, Photoreceptors activate bipolar and horizon cells (Horizontal Inhibits bipolar)

Photopigments

When exposed to light, chemical changes occur that alter membrane potential (Opsin and Retinal)

Young-Helmholtz Theory

Theory of color vison (also called trichromatic theory) that explains that colors are based off of short, medium, and long wavelengths

Opponent Process Theory

Theory of color vison that involves ganglion cells, that we perceive color vison in terms of “opposites” and that sometimes “fatigue” can set in and change the color of what we are seeing in certain situations

Retinex Theory

Theory of color vison that involves color constancy (Black and Blue/Gold and Yellow Dress)

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)

First stop in the neural pathway, tells the brain where to send the visual information to

Area IV (Striate/Primary Visual Cortex)

Area of the brain that processes the conscious perception of vison (knowing that you’re seeing something), also is active during sleep

Blindsight

Ability to see without conscious knowledge

Ventral Stream

Area of the brain that tells you “what” you’re seeing, information goes to the top of the brain

Dorsal Stream

Area of the brain that tells you “where” the location of what you’re seeing is, information goes to the bottom of the brain

V2

Area of the extrastriate cortex that deals with memory

V3

Area of the extrastriate cortex that has an unknown purpose

V4

Area of the extrastriate cortex that deals with attention and color

V5

Area of the extrastriate cortex that deals with motion of other things besides yourself

V6

Area of the extrastriate cortex that deals with self-motion

Akinetopsia

Condition to where the person is not able to see motion, problem with the extrastriate cortex area V5

Vestibular Sense

One of the mechanical senses that controls our balance, located near the cochlea

Utricle/Saccule

The two sac-like structures inside the inner ear

Semicircular Canals

Three canals that surround the utricle/saccule inside the inner ear

Otoconia

Calcium carbonate particles that exist inside the two sacs, press against cilia (hair cells), act like the “snow” in the “snow globe”

Touch

Mechanical sense that reacts to things pressing against our touch receptors

Mechanoreceptors

The most basic touch receptors, four types

Thermoreceptors

Specialized touch receptors that are only used for temperature

Nociceptors

Specialized touch receptors that are only used to detect pain

Merkel Disc

Type of mechanoreceptor that focuses on light touch, and prolonged pressure

Ruffini Endings

Type of mechanoreceptor that focuses on the stretching of the skin

Meissner’s Corpuscles

Type of mechanoreceptor that focuses on low frequency vibrations

Pacinian Corpuscles

Type of mechanoreceptor that focuses on high frequency vibrations

Somatosensory Cortex

An area of the brain that deal with both touch and pain, some areas of the cortex have larger/smaller areas dedicated to certain body parts (lips/fingertips = larger sections) 

Dermatome

Part of skin that corresponds to a nerve

Mechanical Pain

Type of pain that focuses on pressure

Thermal Pain

Type of pain that focuses on temperature (Too hot/too cold)

Chemical Pain

Type of pain that focuses on chemicals

Substance P

Neurotransmitter that is linked to feeling pain

Deplete Substance P, Block Pain Receptors, Reduce Inflammation

Ways to Reduce Pain

Olfactory

Chemical sense that deals with the ability to sense the smells of the environment around us

Vomeronasal Organ

Small organ inside the brain of humans that does not seem to function properly, or at least in the same way as it does for most animals, evidence against the existence of pheromones in humans

Sky-Diving Study

Study performed that suggested that certain scents in humans can cause emotions such as distress, evidence that suggests the existence of pheromones in humans

Stripper Study

Study performed that suggest that people can unconsciously sense certain things (mainly the menstrual cycle) and may act differently afterwards, evidence that points towards that pheromones exist in humans

Sexual Orientation Study

Study performed that suggests that people will show attraction to the scent of the sex they are attracted to, evidence towards the existence of pheromones in humans

Sour

One of the six types of taste in the tongue that senses tastes such as lemons

Sweet

One of the six types of taste in the tongue that senses tastes such as chocolate

Salty

One of the six types of taste in the tongue that senses tastes such as salt and vinegar chips

Bitter

One of the six types of taste in the tongue that senses tastes such as coffee

Umami

One of the six types of taste in the tongue that senses tastes such as cheese

Fat

One of the six types of taste in the tongue that senses tastes such as steak

Hydrogen

Chemical mainly attributed to the sour taste, inotropic (faster)

Sucrose

Chemical mainly attributed to the sweet taste, metatropic (slower)

Sodium

Chemical mainly attributed to the salty taste, inotropic (faster)

Quinine

Chemical mainly attributed to the bitter taste, metatropic (slower)

Glutabate

Chemical mainly attributed to the umami taste, metatropic (slower)

Fatty Acid

Chemical mainly attributed to the fat taste, metatropic (slower)

Taste Aversions

Certain behaviors that cause an abrasive avoidance to certain tastes

Hunger

Period of time when the body has not met certain nutritional needs

Short Term Reservoir

Certain hunger period where the body tells you to eat after only a few hours, usually due to just hunger

Long Term Reservoir

Certain hunger period where the body tells you to change your long-term eating habits, usually when you’re not meeting certain nutritional needs

OEA

A chemical that delays the next meal you eat

CCK

A chemical that helps with the portion sizes of meals

Ghrelin

A chemical that is important to the feeling of hunger

Leptin

Chemical that helps with satiety (feeling of being full) as well as fat storage

Peptide YY

Chemical that helps with satiety (feeling of being full), as well as nutritional needs

GLP 1

Chemical that helps you feel less hungry, used today in modern weight loss medications

Endocannabinoids

Naturally produced drugs that work on both sleep and hunger, mainly makes you more hungry

Vagus Nerve

Nerve located in the brain that is responsible for the feeling of satiety (feeling of being full), and stretching of the stomach when needed

Lateral Hypothalamus

Area of the brain that activates to make you feel hungry

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Area of the brain that activates to tell you to stop eating

Paraventricular Nucleus

Area of the brain that integrates both signals from the Lateral Hypothalamus and the Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Arcuate Nucleus

Area of the brain that focuses on long-term tracking of signals relating to hunger

Thirst

Biological craving for fluids (mainly water)

Osmotic Thirst

Type of thirst that occurs when the body ingests too much salt, and water is drawn out of cells

Hypovolemic Thirst

Type of thirst that occurs when the body reaches a low blood volume

Angiotensin I

Protein that is created when the kidneys release renin into the bloodstream

Angiotensin II

Protein that is created from angiotensin I, causes blood vessels to constrict

Homeostasis

Regulation of the bodily functions to keep the body within certain values (temperature, breathing, fluids, etc)

Set Point

Value in which the body has reached homeostasis