Lecture 4 - the self

Self-concept: 

The overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes

Self-esteem: 

The global evaluation of the self. Measured via self report. Self esteem scale (Rosenberg 1965). Higher self esteem reduces likelihood of depression. Higher life satisfaction 

Self-schemas 

• what is it

• why is it useful

• how does it develop with age

• Cognitive representation of the self 

• Organised like other schemas 

• Guide behaviour in relevant situations 

• Aid memory for relevant info 

• Influence inferences, decisions and judgements 

Grows and becomes more in depth as we age. Goes from physical features and hobbies to inner thoughts and opinions of self. at 16 self esteem is more vulnerable as still developing self concept. Ideas about what we hope for ourselves in future. By 40 values and morality thought of. More emphasis on morality than qualities. 

aschematic

Self-schemas describe dimensions along which you think about yourself. e.g. where you place on an intelligence scale. People who do not think of themselves in terms of intelligence are aschematic on this dimensions. 

Independent view of the self 

• A way of defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings and actions of other people. Common in narcissism as self absorbed, lack of communal value, focus on pushing ahead of others. Need for unconditional positive regard to avoid narcissistic traits. 

Interdependent view of self 

• A way of defining oneself in terms of ones relationships to other people, recognising that ones behaviour is often determined by the thoughts feelings and actions of others.

(McCullough & Dubravka, 2020; Taras et al., 2014). - cultural differences in views of self

People who live in East Asian countries agree more with a more interdependent self view, whereas people in Western countries tend to agree with a more independent self views

Introspection:

he process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings and motives  

Observing behaviour:

of ourself and of others 

2 Sources of self-knowledge 

Introspection:

Observing behaviour:

William James 1890: 2 types of self introspection. 

• “Me” - self as observed. Attributes, traits, skills, possessions

• “I” - self is more than sum of parts. Stream of consciousness and awareness. 

• Both play a part in self schemas to create image of whole self. 

Self awareness theory 

The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behaiovur to their internal standards and values. 

misattribution of introspection theory

• Theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviours; often we learn such theories from our culture (e.g. “absence makes the heart grow stronger” therefore im sad because im missing him and love him. Misattributed as may be hormonal.) 

Self-perception theory: Knowing ourself by observing our own behaviour 

• The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behaviours and the situation which it occurs. e.g. liking someone can be ambiguous but you see you invite them to lunch a lot therefore you must like them. 

2 factor theory of emotion

 the idea that emotional experience is the result of a 2step self perception process in which people 1st experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it. (Schachter 1964)

Intrinsic Motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures. 

Extrinsic Motivation

 the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting.

Overjustification Effect 

the tendency for people to view their behaviour as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons. 

Fixed Mindset:

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

Growth Mindset:

the idea that achievement is the result of working hard, trying new strategies, and seeking input from others

Self comparison theory: Festinger (1954)

The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

 1) When do you engage in social comparison? - Self comparison theory

no objective standard exists to measure yourself against: ambiguous. Especially when we experience uncertainty. e.g. use others as comparison during show much work you should do in the group project. 

With whom do you choose to compare yourself? - Self comparison theory

upward social comparison: comparing yourself to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular train or ability. Can have both negative and positive effects. Motivation and decrease self esteem.

Downward social comparison: Comparing yourself to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability. Can have both positive and negative effects. Most efficient to downward compare with past self as allows for increase in self esteem and change you to have a growth mindset. 

(Schmuck et al., 2019)

Facebook use predicted upward social comparison, which harmed self-esteem and wellbeing over time

Instagram negatively influenced wellbeing over time

Effects of reducing Facebook use - Brailovskaia et al., 2020 

Those who reduced Facebook use over 2 weeks had better life satisfaction and lower depression. 

The looking glass self

By internalising people’s reactions to us, we will see ourselves the same way others see us (Cooley, 1902)

However 

Research has shown we do not see ourselves the way others see us. It’s the way we perceive the other person sees us. Carlson & Kenney, 2012; Shrauger & Schoeneman, 1979 

Direct feedback: rejection vs acception etc. 

Can influence self knowledge and state self esteem. 

Adolescents demonstrated significantly greater sensitivity to feedback than adults

(Chen, 2025)

Impression management: 

attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen. Evolutionary 

Desire to manage the image we present = Culturally Universal

Kind of images we want to present = Cultural Differences

Ingratiation

the process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likeable to another person, often of higher status

Self-Handicapping

 the strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves