5. Memory, Cognitive Load Theory, and Expert vs. Novice Users

What does cognitive psychology refer to?

All processes by which sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.

What are cognitive processes concerned with?

How people think

How does cognitive psychology relate to Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)?

It emphasises the cognitive limitations of users and helps explain problems they encounter.

What is sensory memory?

It preserves information in its original sensory form for a very brief period, lasting up to 3-4 seconds.

What is perception

It refers to how information is acquired from the environment and transformed into experiences of objects.

What are Gestalt Principles?

Rules for perceptual organisation. There are 5:

1. Proximity

2. Similarity

3. Closure

4. Symmetry

5. Continuity

What is the role of attention in cognitive processes?

Attention is a limited mental resource that selects incoming sensory information to focus on.

What are automatic processes in cognitive psychology?

Processes that are highly practiced and require little or no attention, such as touch-typing or driving a familiar route.

What is a downside of automatic processes?

They are difficult to suppress, which can lead to errors if users are not aware of them.

What is the primary function of short-term or working memory?

Temporary storage of information that is limited in both capacity and duration.

What recent research suggests about the capacity of working memory?

The number of unfamiliar items we can store in working memory is actually 4, not 7.

How can chunking improve short-term memory?

By grouping items into larger meaningful units, making them easier to remember.

What is the definition of long-term memory?

A storage system that holds information over an extended period with unlimited capacity.

What is the process of converting information from working memory to long-term memory called?

Encoding.

What factors enhance retrieval from long-term memory?

Good maintenance rehearsal, elaboration of information, context, emotional state during encoding.

What are the two types of retrieval from long-term memory? How do they differ?

Recall and recognition.

Recall involves retrieving information without cues,

Recognition involves selecting previously learned information from options.

Why is recognition generally easier than recall?

Recognition uses context, which helps in remembering.

What is a schema in the context of memory?

A cognitive structure that organises information according to how it will be used.

What is the purpose of activating schemas?

To filter and process information more easily.

What is a mental model?

The representation people have of themselves, others, and their environment.

What other techniques can improve memory?

1. External memory aids e.g. todo lists

2. Computational Offloading e.g.using pen and paper to solve a maths problem

3. Annotating

4. Summaries

5. Mnemonic Devices

What techniques can bypass the limitations of limited working memory?

1. Schemas: by chunking large amounts of information together as a single unit

2. Automation: allowing us to process information with minimal use of our limited WM capacityw

What should be avoided when presenting new information?

Overloading limited working memory.

What are the two functions of automated schemas?

1. store information in long-term memory efficiently

2. reduce the burden on limited working memory

What is means-ends analysis in problem-solving?

a strategy that overloads working memory because learners focus on reducing the gap between the current and goal states rather than developing schemas.

What is better than means-end analysis?

worked out problem solutions

What are the 7 Cognitive Load Principles?

1. Split Attention Effect

2. The Redundancy Effect

3. Expertise Reversal Effect

4. Reduce Search

5. Diagrams

6. The Modality Effect

7. Animation/Transient Information Effect

What is the split attention effect?

It occurs when information requires mental integration from physically split sources -> this strains working memory

What is the trade-off between the split attention and redundancy effect?

depends on both the nature of the materials and the level of expertise of the user

What is the Expertise Reversal Effect?

The optimal presentation format for novice learners may not be suitable for experts

How can SEARCH demands affect cognitive resources?

can be cognitively demanding and waste valuable cognitive resources

What are effective strategies to reduce search demands on screens?

1. limiting information on a single page

2. integrate related information

3. maintain a consistent layout

4. highlight important content

What is the Modality Effect?

It refers to the increased working memory capacity when information is presented in both visual and auditory formats.

What role do diagrams play in learning?

clarify relationships between complex elements, and reduce cognitive load

How can audio-visual materials help reduce the Split Attention Effect?

They allow for simultaneous processing of information, making it easier for learners to integrate related content.

What is the Transient Information Effect?

It suggests that transient information should be used sparingly in online learning environments.

What is a recommended approach when the knowledge level of users is unknown?

Assume less knowledge and integrate related materials to avoid overwhelming users.

What information is considered "TRANSIENT"? What is the general rule for them?

1. Audio

2. Animations

GENERAL RULE: must not be too long or complex and must have pauses

What are the three main sources of cognitive load?

Extraneous, Intrinsic, and Germane.

What is Extraneous cognitive load?

The mental effort caused by poor teaching or unnecessary information that doesn't help learning.

What is Intrinsic cognitive load?

The mental effort needed to understand the material itself, based on how complex it is.

What is Germane cognitive load?

The mental effort used to make sense of the material and build long-term knowledge (schemas).

What is the redundancy effect?

If information is non-essential for understanding, it should be omitted to conserve cognitive resources.

Which of the three load types are modifiable?

extraneous and germane can be modified, intrinsic can only be managed

What is instructional design and what should it aim to increase?

it's designing teaching, so that learning is easier

AIM: increase Germane cognitive load, which supports schema acquisition and learning.

How does CLT link to visibility of system status?

Feedback reduces the need to search for information, freeing up working memory.

How does CLT link to match between the system and real world?

It allows users to apply their prior knowledge and schemas, making the system easier to use.

How does CLT link to user control and freedom?

Clear ways to undo mistakes keep users focused on their goals, but too many options can lead to redundancy.

How does CLT link to consistency?

Consistent design helps users build schemas, making tasks quicker and easier.

How does CLT link to help users recognize, diagnose and recover from errors?

Plain language helps users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors more effectively.

How does CLT link to error prevention?

Preventing errors allows cognitive resources to be focused on the task, leading to faster learning.

How does CLT link to recognition rather than recall?

showing options reduces the burden on working memory.

How does CLT link to flexibility and efficiency of use?

Provide accelerators that are invisible to novice users, but allow more experienced users to carry out tasks more efficiently.

How does CLT link to aesthetic and minimalist design?

Removing clutter reduces unnecessary searching and wasted mental effort.

How does CLT link to help and documentation?

Easy-to-find instructions lower cognitive load by reducing search

What are the characteristics of novices?

1. don't want to remain this way for long

2. want quick help that fades away,

3. need recognition-based system feature

4. require simple tasks with feedback

What distinguishes experts from novices?

Experts have a large and varied knowledge base stored in schemas acquired through extensive practice.

What are the characteristics of experts?

1. Want short cuts

2. Want powerful features, not bothered by increased complexity

3. Expect rapid performance

4. Rely on free recall

5. Need less informative feedback

What is the difference between declarative and procedural knowledge?

Declarative knowledge is about facts or things

Procedural knowledge is about how to perform actions

What is proceduralisation?

when people switch from explicit use of declarative knowledge to direct application of procedural knowledge

What are the three key stages in skill acquisition?

1. Cognitive stage- facts are learnt; encoding of knowledge

2. Associative stage- basic knowledge is acquired through practice

3. Autonomous stage- procedures become automated and rapid

What are the three main research areas comparing experts and novices?

1. Pattern learning and memory

2. Problem representation and categorisation

3. Problem solving strategies

How do experts utilize pattern learning and memory?

Experts can chunk large amounts of meaningful information and remember shortcuts, allowing them to navigate complex systems.

What is a key difference in problem representation between experts and novices?

Experts recognize and categorize problems based on solutions, while novices focus on surface similarities.

What problem-solving strategies do experts typically use?

Schema-based strategies that rely on prior knowledge.

What problem-solving strategies do novices typically use?

They use search-based strategies and require many meaningful cues and feedback.

What are some characteristics of intermediate users?

1. Want access to tools, but don't need scope and purpose explained to them

2. Tooltips are useful → focus on function

3. Online help useful → can access when needed

4. Want regularly used functions easily available

5. Find it reassuring to know advanced features exist, but rarely use them (something to aspire to)

What is holistic design in the context of user experience?

Designing for both experts and novices to facilitate onboarding and progression from novice to intermediate.