AP Psych Exam Study Guide

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus

neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

discrimination (classical conditioning)

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response in classical conditioning

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

fixed interval

reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (weekly, bimonthly, monthly paychecks)

variable interval

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals (bonuses, promotions)

fixed ratio

reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (a maid taking a 15 minute break after cleaning 3 rooms)

variable ratio

reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses (random, buying a lottery ticket and winning)

latent learning

learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful / there's a reason to demonstrate it

insight learning

a form of problem solving in which the organism doesn't systematically interact with the environment and develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid uncontrollable aversive events

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes; controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes; registers and processes skin senses, body touch and movement sensations

frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex; has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement (front motor, front door of the brain)

parietal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex; functions include processing information about touch. (parent helping kid dance, touch, piranha, piranha bite = pain, hurt)

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex; processes visual information (OCulus VR, sight, vision)

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex; responsible for hearing and language. (TEMPOral, music, hearing, near the temples)

thalamus

on top of the brainstem; any incoming and outgoing information goes through this (Hal and Amus, traffic cops)

Frontal, Temporal, Occipital, and Parietal Lobe

Freud Tore Off (his) Pants

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem; plays an important role in controlling arousal, motivation, alertness (tickle, tickle feet = wake up)

pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain located above the medulla; slows movement so you can rest (Ponds = calming, relaxing)

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing (medal, medal is located near heart)

brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain; responsible for automatic survival functions (the stem, sprouting, central)

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature, reward system (homeostasis)

amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion such as fear and aggression

hippocampus

located within the temporal lobe on the side of the skull; helps process memories, facts, and events (hippo needs to find the campus, memory)

limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres comprised of the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus; associated with emotions and drives

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

broca's area

in the front of the skull behind the forehead, frontal lobe, left hemisphere; that directs the muscle movements involved in speech, language expression

wernicke's area

in the top, rear of the skull, temporal lobe; involved in language comprehension and expression like speaking

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex; not involved in primary motor or sensory functions and is involved in learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance (bell, try to balance the bell)

spinal cord

at the base of the skull, in front of the cerebellum, follows along the spine, a major part of the central nervous system; relays sensory, motor, and autonomic messages between the brain and the rest of the body

schwann cells

repairs nerve fibers, giving the ability to regain function and feeling

broca's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak irregularly

wernicke's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language

all-or-none

referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all

direction of impulse

travels from one axon to another

refractory period

the certain period of time before a neuron can fire again

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

resting potential

the electrical potential difference when the cell is in a non-excited state

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages / information pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands,

terminal button

the bud at the end of a branch of an axon; forms synapses with another neuron; sends information to that neuron

dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron; carries and receives incoming messages

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses

synapse

the gap between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite, connects neurons and transmits information

acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning, memory, and muscle action; important to memory and thinking

dopamine

a neurotransmitter associated with movement, emotion, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.

serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.

norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in alertness and arousal

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

glutamate

a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

efferent

motor

afferent

sensory

autonomic

involuntary

somatic

voluntary

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous systemF

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland; regulates growth and develop, controls other endocrine glands.

adrenal cortex

outer section of each adrenal gland; secretes cortisol, aldosterone, and sex hormones, produces hormones for organs to function

procedural memory

A type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things.

effortful processing

encoding of information that takes effort and attention

repression

the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving information, testing yourself, repetitively getting information

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response; being pre exposed to information, exposing it to recall better later

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

context dependent

environment in which something is learned serves as cue for retrieval

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second, imagining (eye, visual)

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

source amnesia

remembering the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

serial position effect

our tendency to recall the last and first items in a list more

state dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

olfaction

sense of smell

audition

sense of hearing

somatosensation

sense of touch/pressure, warmth, cold, and pain

gustation

sense of taste

kinesthesia

the sense of awareness of positioning of body parts and body movement

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, INCLUDING the sense of balance

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

theory that we see the colors red, blue, and green and light stimulates combinations of these colors, enabling us to see other colors

opponent process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision.

vibration theory

proposes that every perceived smell has a different vibrational frequency, and that molecules that produce the same vibrational frequencies will smell the same

place theory

the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated; sense high pitches

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch; senses low pitch

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.