lsat prep

0.0(0)
studied byStudied by 1 person
learnLearn
examPractice Test
spaced repetitionSpaced Repetition
heart puzzleMatch
flashcardsFlashcards
Get a hint
Hint

support

Get a hint
Hint

a claim that acts as evidence for another claim.

Get a hint
Hint

conclusion

Get a hint
Hint

a claim that is backed by support.

Card Sorting

1/73

encourage image

There's no tags or description

Looks like no tags are added yet.

Study Analytics
Name
Mastery
Learn
Test
Matching
Spaced

No study sessions yet.

74 Terms

1
New cards

support

a claim that acts as evidence for another claim.

2
New cards

conclusion

a claim that is backed by support.

3
New cards

background

a statement that provides contextual information but does not play a role in the argument.

4
New cards

main conclusion

  • the claim that is backed by the rest of the argument as a whole

  • backed by support, but does not itself support any other claim

  • the claim that the argument as a whole is trying to establish

5
New cards

sub-conclusion

  • also called intermediate or subsidiary conclusions

  • claims that function as both conclusion and support

  • a conclusion that supports a further conclusion (or conclusions)

  • backed by support, and simultaneously support a different claim

6
New cards

main conclusion.

statements that begin with support-indicator words such as “since” and “because” are acting as evidence for other claims, so they can’t be the…

7
New cards

(C) The claim of paleontologists that Apatosaurus was able to gallop is likely to be incorrect. → This choices matches our prediction—every other claim in the argument serves to support this claim, and this claim does not, in turn, support anything else.

Conclusion:

Some paleontologists have suggested that Apatosaurus, a huge dinosaur, was able to gallop. This, however, is unlikely, because galloping would probably have broken Apatosaurus’s legs. Experiments with modern bones show how much strain they can withstand before breaking. By taking into account the diameter and density of Apatosaurus leg bones, it is possible to calculate that those bones could not have withstood the strains of galloping.

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn by the argument as a whole?

(A) Galloping would probably have broken the legs of Apatosaurus. 

(B) It is possible to calculate that Apatosaurus leg bones could not have withstood the strain of galloping. 

(C) The claim of paleontologists that Apatosaurus was able to gallop is likely to be incorrect. 

(D) If galloping would have broken the legs of Apatosaurus, then Apatosaurus was probably unable to gallop. 

(E) Modern bones are quite similar in structure and physical properties to the bones of Apatosaurus.

8
New cards

(Choice A)  It is a good idea for florists to stock up on white carnations before St. Patrick's Day. → This is the overall conclusion of the florist's argument. We can rephrase the argument as: "Florists should stock up on white carnations before St. Patrick's Day, because

  • Some people like to have green carnations on St. Patrick's Day, but

  • Flowers that are naturally green are extremely rare, thus

  • It is very difficult for plant breeders to produce green carnations, [but]

  • White carnations are fairly inexpensive and quite easy to dye green.

Conclusion: Florist: Some people like to have green carnations on St. Patrick's Day. But flowers that are naturally green are extremely rare. Thus, it is very difficult for plant breeders to produce green carnations. Before St. Patrick's Day, then, it is wise for florists to stock up on white carnations, which are fairly inexpensive and quite easy to dye green.

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion of the florist's argument?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  It is a good idea for florists to stock up on white carnations before St. Patrick's Day.

  • (Choice B)  Flowers that are naturally green are very rare.

  • (Choice C)  There are some people who like to have green carnations on St. Patrick's Day.

  • (Choice D)  White carnations are fairly inexpensive and can easily be dyed green.

  • (Choice E)  It is very difficult to breed green carnations.

9
New cards

4) Thus these media critics are mistaken. → The conclusion-indicator “thus” helps identify the last sentence as the argument’s main conclusion. It’s also the only statement that’s supported by evidence but not acting as support for some other claim. Claims 1 and 2 express an opposing view. Claim 3 gives some reason to doubt this view, and Claim 4 concludes, on the basis of this objection, that the critics are mistaken.

Conclusion: Economist: Some critics of the media have contended that negative news reports on the state of the economy can actually harm the economy because such reports damage people's confidence in it, and this lack of confidence in turn adversely affects people's willingness to spend money. But studies show that spending trends correlate very closely with people's confidence in their own immediate economic situations. Thus these media critics are mistaken.

1) Some critics of the media have contended that negative news reports on the state of the economy can actually harm the economy because such reports damage people's confidence in it, and
2) This lack of confidence in turn adversely affects people's willingness to spend money.
3) But studies show that spending trends correlate very closely with people's confidence in their own immediate economic situations.
4) Thus these media critics are mistaken.

10
New cards

Many purported ill-effects from moderate consumption of coffee are unfounded → The argument does not draw a strong conclusion.  It does not assert that coffee is healthy or that it has no negative health effects. 

Conclusion: While coffee does stain teeth, most claims that coffee has ill-effects are unfounded. There is even some evidence of health benefits. The situation may be different when the arguments relate to people who consume more than a moderate amount of coffee.

Which of the following conclusions most logically follows from the argument?

Possible Answers:

  • Consumed in moderation, coffee has no ill-effects.

  • People who drink coffee in excess are likely to have severe teeth staining.

  • Moderate coffee consumption will not stain teeth.

  • Moderate consumption of coffee has health benefits while excessive consumption causes ill-effects, including teeth staining.

  • Many purported ill-effects from moderate consumption of coffee are unfounded.

11
New cards

entailment questions

If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?

Which one of the following logically follows from the statements above?

Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above?

12
New cards
  • (Choice D)  Any well-designed coffeehouse or restaurant has a spacious interior. → This statement must be true. Could there be a well-designed coffeehouse without a spacious interior? No. If a space is well-designed, then it’s either not a public place or it’s comfortable, since we were told that:

    But if a public place is uncomfortable it is not well designed

    The logical equivalent of this statement is that if a space is well-designed, then it's either not a public place or it's comfortable. Since we’re talking about a coffeeshop, which is a public place, that means that it must be comfortable. If it’s comfortable, then it has to have a spacious interior. This is the answer, because it can’t be false given the information in the stimulus.

Entailment: Interior decorator: All coffeehouses and restaurants are public places. Most well-designed public places feature artwork. But if a public place is uncomfortable it is not well designed, and all comfortable public places have spacious interiors.

If all of the interior decorator's statements are true, then which one of the following must be true?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Any restaurant that has a spacious interior is comfortable.

  • (Choice B)  Most public places that feature artwork are well designed.

  • (Choice C)  Most coffeehouses that are well designed feature artwork.

  • (Choice D)  Any well-designed coffeehouse or restaurant has a spacious interior.

  • (Choice E)  Any coffeehouse that has a spacious interior is a well-designed public place.

13
New cards
  • (Choice D)  Algae will not proliferate in coastal estuaries that are not polluted by nutrient-rich sewage. → This must be true. We can map the following causal chain of events from the passage: 

    • nutrient-rich sewage  pollute coastal estuaries overnutrification  lots of algae  possibly feeds toxic microorganisms  most of the fish in the estuary die

    We can see that the possibility that (E) presents must be true, if the statements in the passage are true.

Entailment: The calm, shallow waters of coastal estuaries are easily polluted by nutrient-rich sewage. When estuary waters become overnutrified as a result, algae proliferate. The abundant algae, in turn, sometimes provide a rich food source for microorganisms that are toxic to fish, thereby killing most of the fish in the estuary. 

Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the information above?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Fish in an estuary that has been polluted by sewage are generally more likely to die from pollution than are fish in an estuary that has been polluted in some other way. 

  • (Choice B)  In estuary waters that contain abundant algae, microorganisms that are toxic to fish reproduce more quickly than other types of microorganisms. 

  • (Choice C)  Nutrients and other components of sewage do not harm fish in coastal estuaries in any way other than through the resulting proliferation of toxic microorganisms. 

  • (Choice D)  Algae will not proliferate in coastal estuaries that are not polluted by nutrient-rich sewage. 

  • (Choice E)  Overnutrifying estuary waters by sewage can result in the death of most of the fish in the estuary.

14
New cards
  • (Choice B)  A modern reader and a nineteenth-century reader interpret one of Shakespeare's sonnets in the same way. → This choice conflicts with the passage's information, so it must be false. 

    In the passage, the critic tells us that 

    • Meaning is always the unique result of an interaction between a reader's system of beliefs and the poem, [and]

    • Any two readers from different cultures or eras have radically different systems of beliefs.

    These statements combine to indicate that a modern reader and a nineteenth-century reader—that is, readers from different eras—cannot interpret a Shakespearean sonnet in the same way.

Entailment: Critic: Emily Dickinson's poetry demonstrates that meaning cannot reside entirely within a poem itself, but is always the unique result of an interaction between a reader's system of beliefs and the poem; and, of course, any two readers from different cultures or eras have radically different systems of beliefs.

If the critic's statements are true, each of the following could be true EXCEPT:

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  A reader's interpretation of a poem by Dickinson is affected by someone else's interpretation of it.

  • (Choice B)  A modern reader and a nineteenth-century reader interpret one of Shakespeare's sonnets in the same way.

  • (Choice C)  A reader's interpretation of a poem evolves over time.

  • (Choice D)  Two readers from the same era arrive at different interpretations of the same poem.

  • (Choice E)  A reader's enjoyment of a poem is enhanced by knowing the poet's interpretation of it.

15
New cards
  1. Anyone who sometimes writes poetry that is not politically conservative never writes poetry that is politically conservative. → The premise given is that there are two contemporary and politically progressive feminist poets who write formal poetry—Molly Peacock and Marilyn Hacker. If no one who is politically progressive is capable of performing a politically conservative act, and Peacock and Hacker are politically progressive, it follows logically that neither is capable of performing a politically conservative act. Since both write formal poetry, their writing of formal poetry cannot be a politically conservative act. This shows that one can write formal poetry without performing a politically conservative act.

Entailment: Several critics have claimed that any contemporary poet who writes formal poetry—poetry that is rhymed and metered—is performing a politically conservative act. This is plainly false. Consider Molly Peacock and Marilyn Hacker, two contemporary poets whose poetry is almost exclusively formal and yet who are themselves politically progressive feminists.

The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

  1. No one who is a feminist is also politically conservative.

  2. No poet who writes unrhymed or unmetered poetry is politically conservative.

  3. No one who is politically progressive is capable of performing a politically conservative act.

  4. Anyone who sometimes writes poetry that is not politically conservative never writes poetry that is politically conservative.

  5. The content of a poet’s work, not the work’s form, is the most decisive factor in determining what political consequences, if any, the work will have.

16
New cards

strong supported inferences questions

Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?

Which one of the following can most reasonably be concluded on the basis of the information above?

The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?

17
New cards

(E) West Nile virus was not carried to North America via an infected person. → This claim is supported by the passage. Mosquitoes can’t get West Nile from humans, and other mammals and birds can only get it from mosquitoes. So if a single infected human shows up in a new environment, the virus has no way of spreading. Therefore, it must have been some combination of mosquitoes and other birds and animals that carried the virus from northern Africa to North America.

Strong Supported Inferences

Birds and mammals can be infected with West Nile virus only through mosquito bites. Mosquitoes, in turn, become infected with the virus when they bite certain infected birds or mammals. The virus was originally detected in northern Africa and spread to North America in the 1990s. Humans sometimes catch West Nile virus, but the virus never becomes abundant enough in human blood to infect a mosquito.

The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?

(A) West Nile virus will never be a common disease among humans.

(B) West Nile virus is most common in those parts of North America with the highest density of mosquitoes.

(C) Some people who become infected with West Nile virus never show symptoms of illness.

(D) West Nile virus infects more people in northern Africa than it does in North America.

(E) West Nile virus was not carried to North America via an infected person.

18
New cards
  • (Choice B)  A decreased risk of stroke is correlated with increased levels of folic acid. → This information is strongly supported by the passage. There are several relationships present in the passage:

    • Increased consumption of fruits and vegetables by middle-aged people reduces their susceptibility to stroke in later years.

    • Researchers speculate that this may be because fruits and vegetables are rich in folic acid, [and]

    • Low levels of folic acid are associated with high levels of homocysteine.

    • [Homocysteine is] an amino acid that contributes to blocked arteries.

    In other words, high folic acid consumption happens at the same time as (or "is correlated with") a lower risk of stroke.

Strong Supported Inferences: Recent research indicates that increased consumption of fruits and vegetables by middle-aged people reduces their susceptibility to stroke in later years. The researchers speculate that this may be because fruits and vegetables are rich in folic acid. Low levels of folic acid are associated with high levels of homocysteine, an amino acid that contributes to blocked arteries.

Which one of the following statements is most strongly supported by the information above?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  An increased risk of stroke is correlated with low levels of homocysteine.

  • (Choice B)  A decreased risk of stroke is correlated with increased levels of folic acid.

  • (Choice C)  An increased propensity for blocked arteries is correlated with decreased levels of homocysteine.

    (Choice D)  A decreased propensity for blocked arteries is correlated with low levels of folic acid.

  • (Choice E)  Stroke is prevented by ingestion of folic acid in quantities sufficient to prevent a decline in the levels of homocysteine.

19
New cards
  • (Choice C)  A population remains settled only where the climate is fairly stable. → This information is supported by the passage. We're told that 1) climate and geology determine where human industry can be established. And that 2) drastic shifts in climate always result in migrations (which is the opposite of a settled population). So if drastic climate shifts *always lead to an unsettled population, then we can reasonably infer that a settled population would need to be in a fairly stable climate.

Strong Supported Inferences: Sociologist: Climate and geology determine where human industry can be established. Drastic shifts in climate always result in migrations, and migrations bring about the intermingling of ideas necessary for rapid advances in civilization.

The sociologist's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Climate is the primary cause of migration.

  • (Choice B)  All shifts in climate produce a net gain in human progress.

  • (Choice C)  A population remains settled only where the climate is fairly stable.

  • (Choice D)  Populations settle in every place where human industry can be established.

  • (Choice E)  Every migration is accompanied by rapid advances in civilization.

20
New cards
  • (Choice C)  Some mystery stories give readers enough clues to infer the correct solution to the mystery. → This claim is supported by the passage. We're told that mystery stories often feature a brilliant detective and the detective's dull companion, and that the reason for the dull companion is that it gives readers a chance to solve the mystery. This strongly supports the claim in this choice, that some mystery stories give readers enough clues (by way of the dull companion) to infer the correct solution to the mystery.

Mystery stories often feature a brilliant detective and the detective's dull companion. Clues are presented in the story, and the companion wrongly infers an inaccurate solution to the mystery using the same clues that the detective uses to deduce the correct solution. Thus, the author's strategy of including the dull companion gives readers a chance to solve the mystery while also diverting them from the correct solution.

Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)   

    Most mystery stories feature a brilliant detective who solves the mystery presented in the story.

  • (Choice B)  Mystery readers often solve the mystery in a story simply by spotting the mistakes in the reasoning of the detective's dull companion in that story.

  • (Choice C)  Some mystery stories give readers enough clues to infer the correct solution to the mystery.

  • (Choice D)  The actions of the brilliant detective in a mystery story rarely divert readers from the actions of the detective's dull companion.

  • (Choice E)  The detective's dull companion in a mystery story generally uncovers the misleading clues that divert readers from the mystery's correct solution.

21
New cards
  • (Choice E)  Certain anatomical characteristics common to some aquatic animals represent an advantage for survival on land. → This claim is strongly supported by the passage. Notice the "safer" language in "certain anatomical characteristics" and "some aquatic animals." These are the kinds of weaker statements that are generally easier to support—particularly with a passage that doesn't exhibit strong language itself. We can replace the vague language in this choice with specific language from the passage, to show that it's supported: Certain anatomical characteristics (rotating limbs terminating in digits) common to some aquatic animals (Acanthostega) represent an advantage for survival on land.

Most land-dwelling vertebrates have rotating limbs terminating in digits, a characteristic useful for land movement. Biologists who assume that this characteristic evolved only after animals abandoned aquatic environments must consider the Acanthostega, a newly discovered ancestor of all land vertebrates. It possessed rotating limbs terminating in digits, but its skeleton was too feeble for land movement. It also breathed using only internal gills, indicating that it and its predecessors were exclusively aquatic.

The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)   

    Many anatomical characteristics common to most land animals represent a disadvantage for survival underwater.

  • (Choice B)  None of the anatomical characteristics common to most aquatic animals represent an advantage for survival on land.

  • (Choice C)  Acanthostega originated as a land-dwelling species, but evolved gills only after moving to an underwater environment.

  • (Choice D)  All anatomical characteristics not useful for land movement but common to most land animals represent an advantage for survival underwater.

  • (Choice E)  Certain anatomical characteristics common to some aquatic animals represent an advantage for survival on land.

22
New cards
  • (Choice C)  how to make nutritional choices that are conducive to their well-being → The passage includes a principle and an analogy that applies that principle. In the swimming example, the principle appears to be that it’s more important to teach children to swim than to provide fencing for protection (even though both are important). So the priority is placed on empowering children.

    The scope then shifts to soft drinks and candies that are advertised on television. It’s important to restrict children’s access to the soft drinks and candies, but it’s even more important to ...and this is where we can make a prediction.

    If the principle places a priority on empowering children, then we can infer that the blank consists of something about teaching children to take control of their health. This choice does just that: teaching children how to make nutritional choices that are good for their well-being completes the passage’s analogy in a logical way.

Swimming pools should be fenced to protect children from drowning, but teaching children to swim is even more important. And there is a principle involved here that applies to childrearing generally. Thus, while we should restrict children's access to the soft drinks and candies advertised on television shows directed towards children, it is even more important to teach them __________.

Which one of the following most logically completes the passage?

Choose 1 answer:

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  that television can be a good source of accurate information about many things

  • (Choice B)  that television advertisements are deceptive and misleading

  • (Choice C)  how to make nutritional choices that are conducive to their well-being 

  • (Choice D)  the importance of physical activity to health and well-being 

  • (Choice E)  how to creatively entertain themselves without watching television

23
New cards

dispute questions

The dialogue provides the most support for the claim that Sarah and Paul disagree over whether

On the basis of their statements, Winchell and Trent are committed to disagreeing over whether

24
New cards

(E) trampoline use is an activity that warrants mandatory professional supervision → Physician: Agree—the physician states this claim clearly in his or her conclusion.

  • Enthusiast: Disagree—when the enthusiast states, “I disagree”, we see from the nature of the evidence that the enthusiast doesn’t believe that professional supervision is absolutely necessary.

dispute questions: Physician: There were approximately 83,400 trampoline-related injuries last year. This suggests that trampolines are quite dangerous and should therefore be used only under professional supervision.

Trampoline enthusiast: I disagree. In the past ten years sales of home trampolines have increased much more than trampoline-related injuries have: 260 percent in sales compared with 154 percent in injuries. Every exercise activity carries risks, even when carried out under professional supervision.

The dialogue provides the most support for the claim that the physician and the trampoline enthusiast disagree over whether

(A) trampolines cause injuries to a significant number of people using them
(B) home trampolines are the main source of trampoline-related injuries
(C) the rate of trampoline-related injuries, in terms of the number of injuries per trampoline user, is declining
(D) professional supervision of trampoline use tends to reduce the number of trampoline-related injuries
(E) trampoline use is an activity that warrants mandatory professional supervision

25
New cards
  • (Choice C)  futuristic science fiction has more promise as a source of social criticism than does conventional fiction → Lutsina: Agree—Lutsina would agree that futuristic science fiction has more promise (i.e. potential) as a source of social criticism, since that’s essentially her conclusion.

  • Priscilla: Disagree—Priscilla would disagree with this claim, since she believes that “the most effective social criticism results from [something that] happens in conventional fiction.”

  • Because Lutsina would believe (C) to be true and Priscilla would believe (C) to be false, this choice accurate represents a point of disagreement between the two speakers.

dispute questions: Lutsina: Because futuristic science fiction does not need to represent current social realities, its writers can envisage radically new social arrangements. Thus it has the potential to be a richer source of social criticism than is conventional fiction.

Priscilla: That futuristic science fiction writers more skillfully envisage radically new technologies than new social arrangements shows how writers' imaginations are constrained by current realities. Because of this limitation, the most effective social criticism results from faithfully presenting the current social realities for critical examination, as happens in conventional fiction.

Lutsina and Priscilla disagree with each other about whether

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  some science fiction writers have succeeded in envisaging convincing, radically new social arrangements 

  • (Choice B)  writers of conventional fiction are more skillful than are writers of futuristic science fiction 

  • (Choice C)  futuristic science fiction has more promise as a source of social criticism than does conventional fiction 

  • (Choice D)  envisaging radically new technologies rather than radically new social arrangements is a shortcoming of futuristic science fiction 

  • (Choice E)  criticism of current social arrangements is not effective when those arrangements are contrasted with radically different ones 

26
New cards
  • (Choice B)  the extent to which teachers should direct schoolchildren's education → Gaby: Lesser—Gaby believes that teacher should offer "minimal guidance" while children have maximum agency.

  • Logan: Greater—Logan believes that "disciplined, systematic instruction from accredited teachers" is necessary.

  • Because Gaby and Logan have differing viewpoints on this topic, this is our answer.

dispute questions: Gaby: In school, children should be allowed fully to follow their own interests, supported by experienced teachers who offer minimal guidance. This enables them to be most successful in their adult lives.

Logan: I disagree. Schoolchildren should acquire the fundamental knowledge necessary for future success, and they learn such fundamentals only through disciplined, systematic instruction from accredited teachers.

Gaby's and Logan's comments provide most support for the claim that they disagree about

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  the way in which schoolchildren best acquire fundamental knowledge 

  • (Choice B)  the extent to which teachers should direct schoolchildren's education 

  • (Choice C)  the importance of having qualified teachers involved in schoolchildren's education 

  • (Choice D)  the sort of school environment that most fosters children's creativity 

  • (Choice E)  the extent to which schoolchildren are interested in fundamental academic subjects 

27
New cards
  • (Choice D)  The striking workers at Ergon Foods are underpaid. → Goswami: Agree—Goswami explicitly states that the striking workers are underpaid.

  • Nordecki: Disagree—Nordecki cites the average annual salary of the striking workers to be over $29,000 and uses that to indicate that the workers are not, in fact, underpaid.

  • Because Goswami would agree and Nordecki would disagree with this choice, it's our issue in dispute.

dispute questions: Goswami: I support the striking workers at Ergon Foods. They are underpaid. The majority of them make less than $20,000 per year. 

Nordecki: If pay is the issue, I must disagree. The average annual salary of the striking workers at Ergon Foods is over $29,000.

Goswami and Nordecki disagree over the truth of which one of the following statements?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  The average annual salary at Ergon Foods is over $29,000. 

  • (Choice B)  Pay is the primary issue over which the workers are striking at Ergon Foods. 

  • (Choice C)  It is reasonable to support striking workers who are underpaid. 

    (Choice D)  The striking workers at Ergon Foods are underpaid. 

  • (Choice E)  It was unreasonable for the workers at Ergon Foods to go on strike. 

28
New cards

identity the technique questions

The argument proceeds by

Which of the following is a technique of reasoning used in the argument?

In her argument, the executive’s reasoning does which one of the following?

Sometimes these questions involve two speakers engaged in debate. In these questions, you’re usually asked about the reasoning of the second speaker—for example:

Speaker Z responds to Speaker X's argument by doing which one of the following?

29
New cards

(A) indicating that the state of affairs on which the economist's prediction was conditioned did not obtain → Based on the thinking that we’ve done, we could predict that the economist is disagreeing with the critic by showing that the critic’s support isn’t relevant, since there was a change in policy.

identity the technique questions: Critic to economist: In yet another of your bumbling forecasts, last year you predicted that this country's economy would soon go into recession if current economic policies were not changed. Instead, economic growth is even stronger this year.

Economist: There was nothing at all bumbling about my warning. Indeed, it convinced the country's leaders to change economic policies, which is what prevented a recession.

The economist responds to the critic by

(A) indicating that the state of affairs on which the economist's prediction was conditioned did not obtain 

(B) distinguishing between a prediction that has not yet turned out to be correct and one that has turned out to be incorrect 

(C) attempting to show that the critic's statements are mutually inconsistent 

(D) offering a particular counterexample to a general claim asserted by the critic 

(E) offering evidence against one of the critic's factual premises

30
New cards
  • (Choice B)  claiming that the statistics cited as evidence by the drilling opponent are factually inaccurate → The drilling proponent never addresses the opponent’s statistics at all, so this choice doesn’t describe the proponent’s technique. What the proponent believes to be “ridiculous” is the conclusion that the opponent draws from the statistics given.

identity the technique questions: Opponent of offshore oil drilling: The projected benefits of drilling new oil wells in certain areas in the outer continental shelf are not worth the risk of environmental disaster. The oil already being extracted from these areas currently provides only 4 percent of our country's daily oil requirement, and the new wells would only add one-half of 1 percent.

Proponent of offshore oil drilling: Don't be ridiculous! You might just as well argue that new farms should not be allowed, since no new farm could supply the total food needs of our country for more than a few minutes.

The drilling proponent's reply to the drilling opponent proceeds by

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  offering evidence in support of drilling that is more decisive than is the evidence offered by the drilling opponent 

  • (Choice B)  claiming that the statistics cited as evidence by the drilling opponent are factually inaccurate 

  • (Choice C)  pointing out that the drilling opponent's argument is a misapplication of a frequently legitimate way of arguing 

  • (Choice D)  citing as parallel to the argument made by the drilling opponent an argument in which the conclusion is strikingly unsupported 

  • (Choice E)  proposing a conclusion that is more strongly supported by the drilling opponent's evidence than is the conclusion offered by the drilling opponent 

31
New cards
  • (Choice A)  disputes an implicit assumption of Sahira's → This describes what Rahima is doing. Rahima calls attention to an idea that Sahira's argument depends on and then immediately disputes that idea ("this need not be true"). An unstated idea that an argument depends on is an assumption, so this is our answer.

identity the technique questions: Sahira: To make a living from their art, artists of great potential would have to produce work that would gain widespread popular acclaim, instead of their best work. That is why governments are justified in subsidizing artists. 

Rahima: Your argument for subsidizing art depends on claiming that to gain widespread popular acclaim, artists must produce something other than their best work; but this need not be true. 

In her argument, Rahima

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  disputes an implicit assumption of Sahira's

  • (Choice B)  presents independent support for Sahira's argument

  • (Choice C)  accepts Sahira's conclusion, but for reasons different from those given by Sahira

  • (Choice D)  uses Sahira's premises to reach a conclusion different from that reached by Sahira

  • (Choice E)  argues that a standard that she claims Sahira uses is self-contradictory

32
New cards

role questions

The claim that XXXXX plays which one of the following roles in the argument?

Which of the following most accurately describes the role played by the claim that XXXXX?

33
New cards

(E) It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion drawn in the argument. → So, it would seem that our statement is a premise: it is a claim that’s not supported by anything else but that is helping to support the conclusion.

role questions: Does the position of a car driver's seat have a significant impact on driving safety? It probably does. Driving position affects both comfort and the ability to see the road clearly. A driver who is uncomfortable eventually becomes fatigued, which makes it difficult to concentrate on the road. Likewise, the better the visibility from the driver's seat, the more aware the driver can be of road conditions and other vehicles.

Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the claim that driving position affects both comfort and the ability to see the road clearly?

(A) It is the conclusion drawn in the argument. 

(B) It is a claim that the argument shows to be inconsistent with available evidence. 

(C) It is used to provide a causal explanation for an observed phenomenon. 

(D) It describes evidence that the argument ultimately refutes. 

(E) It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion drawn in the argument.

34
New cards
  • (Choice B)  It provides support for the conclusion of the argument. → This is an accurate description of the role played by the statement in question. The argument’s structure is:

    Conclusion

    • [A new process enabling ordinary table salt to be fortified with iron] could help reduce the high incidence of anemia in the world’s population due to a deficiency of iron in the diet

    because

    Support

    • Salt is used as a preservative for food and a flavor enhancer all over the globe, and

    • People consume salt in quantities that would provide iron in significant amounts.

role questions: A new process enables ordinary table salt to be fortified with iron. This advance could help reduce the high incidence of anemia in the world's population due to a deficiency of iron in the diet. Salt is used as a preservative for food and a flavor enhancer all over the globe, and people consume salt in quantities that would provide iron in significant amounts.

Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the statement that people consume salt in quantities that would provide iron in significant amounts?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  It is the conclusion of the argument. 

  • (Choice B)  It provides support for the conclusion of the argument. 

  • (Choice C)  It is a claim that the argument is directed against. 

  • (Choice D)  It qualifies the conclusion of the argument. 

  • (Choice E)  It illustrates a principle that underlies the argument.

35
New cards

principle questions (generalizations or propositions)

The passage is an argument or a situation, and the _______ is in the choices.

Which one of the following generalizations is most clearly illustrated by the passage?
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most help to justify the reasoning in the editorial?
The situation as Madden describes it best illustrates which one of the following propositions?

  • The choices are all arguments or situation, and the ________ is in the passage.

Which one of the following judgments conforms most closely to the principle cited by the columnist?
Which one of the following provides the best illustration of the principle above?

36
New cards

(B) An organization can have a property that not all of its members possess. → An organization (hospitals, universities, labor unions, and other institutions) can have a property (having public purposes) that not all of its members (individual staff members) possess.

Since the specific situation in the passage falls under the overarching principle that this choice presents, (B) is our answer.

identify the principle: Hospitals, universities, labor unions, and other institutions may well have public purposes and be quite successful at achieving them even though each of their individual staff members does what he or she does only for selfish reasons.

Which one of the following generalizations is most clearly illustrated by the passage?

(A) What is true of some social organizations is not necessarily true of all such organizations.

(B) An organization can have a property that not all of its members possess.

(C) People often claim altruistic motives for actions that are in fact selfish.

(D) Many social institutions have social consequences unintended by those who founded them.

(E) Often an instrument created for one purpose will be found to serve another purpose just as effectively.

37
New cards

(D) Maria's deliberate violation of a law requiring prepublication government approval of all printed materials was an act of justified civil disobedience: though her interest as an owner of a publishing company would be served by repeal of the law, she violated the law because her conscience required doing so on behalf of all publishers. → Since we’re told that Maria’s deliberately broke a law and her motive was to bring about legal reform, we can determine that her act was civil disobedience. We’re also told that her conscience required her to act, which the passage’s principles state is sufficient to determine that her action was justified.

find a situation that conforms (principle questions): If an act of civil disobedience—willfully breaking a specific law in order to bring about legal reform—is done out of self-interest alone and not out of a concern for others, it cannot be justified. But one is justified in performing an act of civil disobedience if one's conscience requires one to do so.

Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principles stated above?

(A) Keisha's protest against what she perceived to be a brutal and repressive dictatorship in another country was an act of justified civil disobedience, because in organizing an illegal but peaceful demonstration calling for a return to democratic leadership in that country, she acted purely out of concern for the people of that country.

(B) Janice's protest against a law that forbade labor strikes was motivated solely by a desire to help local mine workers obtain fair wages. But her conscience did not require her to protest this law, so Janice did not perform an act of justified civil disobedience.

(C) In organizing an illegal protest against the practice in her country of having prison inmates work eighteen hours per day, Georgette performed an act of justified civil disobedience: she acted out of concern for her fellow inmates rather than out of concern for herself.

(D) Maria's deliberate violation of a law requiring prepublication government approval of all printed materials was an act of justified civil disobedience: though her interest as an owner of a publishing company would be served by repeal of the law, she violated the law because her conscience required doing so on behalf of all publishers.

(E) In organizing a parade of motorcyclists riding without helmets through the capital city, Louise's act was not one of justified civil disobedience: she was willfully challenging a specific law requiring motorcyclists to wear helmets, but her conscience did not require her to organize the parade.

38
New cards
  • (Choice C)  Any journalism that provides accurate information on a subject about which there is considerable interest is good journalism. → This principle helps justify the editorial’s reasoning. It connects the gap between accurate information and public interest and what constitutes good journalism. If any journalism that gives accurate information on a subject that the public is curious about means that that journalism is good journalism, then the editorial’s conclusion is more likely to follow from its support about the recent coverage, which exhibits those characteristics.

principles questions: Editorial: One of our local television stations has been criticized for its recent coverage of the personal problems of a local politician's nephew, but the coverage was in fact good journalism. The information was accurate. Furthermore, the newscast had significantly more viewers than it normally does, because many people are curious about the politician's nephew's problems.

Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the reasoning in the editorial?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Journalism deserves to be criticized if it does not provide information that people want.

  • (Choice B)  Any journalism that intentionally misrepresents the facts of a case deserves to be criticized.

  • (Choice C)  Any journalism that provides accurate information on a subject about which there is considerable interest is good journalism.

  • (Choice D)  Good journalism will always provide people with information that they desire or need.

    (Choice E)  Journalism that neither satisfies the public's curiosity nor provides accurate information can never be considered good journalism.

39
New cards
  • (Choice D)  People should always have their writing proofread by someone else. Someone who does not know in advance what is meant to be said is in a better position to spot typographical errors. → This choice illustrates the passage’s principle that you should have your work (writing) checked (proofread) by someone else, because people are better at detecting mistakes in others’ work (here, because that someone does not know in advance what is meant to be said) than in their own.

principle questions: Because people are generally better at detecting mistakes in others' work than in their own, a prudent principle is that one should always have one's own work checked by someone else.

Which one of the following provides the best illustration of the principle above?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  The best elementary school math teachers are not those for whom math was always easy. Teachers who had to struggle through math themselves are better able to explain math to students.

  • (Choice B)  One must make a special effort to clearly explain one's views to someone else; people normally find it easier to understand their own views than to understand others' views.

  • (Choice C)  Juries composed of legal novices, rather than panels of lawyers, should be the final arbiters in legal proceedings. People who are not legal experts are in a better position to detect good legal arguments by lawyers than are other lawyers.

  • (Choice D)  People should always have their writing proofread by someone else. Someone who does not know in advance what is meant to be said is in a better position to spot typographical errors.

  • (Choice E)  Two people going out for dinner will have a more enjoyable meal if they order for each other. By allowing someone else to choose, one opens oneself up to new and exciting dining experiences.

40
New cards
  • (Choice A)  Government-owned companies have the right to do whatever private businesses have the right to do. → This principle bridges the gap in the argument. Since the support involves what private gas companies can do and the conclusion involves affirming what a government-owned gas company is doing, then this choice's principle—which shows that one company has the right to do whatever the other company has a right to do—helps justify the argument.

principle questions: The government-owned gas company has begun selling stoves and other gas appliances to create a larger market for its gas. Merchants who sell such products complain that the competition will hurt their businesses. That may well be; however, the government-owned gas company is within its rights. After all, the owner of a private gas company might well decide to sell such appliances and surely there would be nothing wrong with that. 

Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning above?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Government-owned companies have the right to do whatever private businesses have the right to do.

  • (Choice B)  A government should always take seriously the complaints of merchants.

  • (Choice C)  Private businesses have no right to compete with government monopolies.

  • (Choice D) There is nothing wrong with a government-owned company selling products so long as owners of private companies do not complain.

  • (Choice E)  There is nothing wrong with private companies competing against each other.

41
New cards

match the structure questions

The pattern of reasoning in which of the following arguments is most similar to that in the argument above?

Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above?

42
New cards

(C) Future generations' understanding of today's publishing trends will be distorted if they judge by works published in CD-ROM format, since it is primarily publishers interested in computer games that are using CD-ROM. → This is the answer. Our general characterization of the passage was, “We might get a certain impression about a certain thing (today’s publishing trends), but that impression would be misleading because it comes from an unrepresentative sample of that thing (a sample of mostly publishers who are interested in computer games).”

match the structure questions: Watching music videos from the 1970s would give the viewer the impression that the music of the time was dominated by synthesizer pop and punk rock. But this would be a misleading impression. Because music videos were a new art form at the time, they attracted primarily cutting-edge musicians.

Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to that of the argument above?

(A) Our view of pre-printing-press literature can never be accurate, because the surviving works of ancient authors are those that were deemed by copyists most likely to be of interest to future readers.

(B) Our memory of 1960s TV shows could hardly be improved, because so many of the television programs of the era are still rerun today.

(C) Future generations' understanding of today's publishing trends will be distorted if they judge by works published in CD-ROM format, since it is primarily publishers interested in computer games that are using CD-ROM.

(D) Our understanding of silent films is incomplete, because few filmmakers of the time realized that the film stock they were using would disintegrate over time.

(E) Our notion of fashion trends will probably be accurate if we rely on TV fashion programs, despite the fact that these programs deliberately select the most outrageous outfits in order to get the viewers' attention.

43
New cards
  • (Choice C)  A new highway will allow suburban commuters to reach the city more quickly, but not without causing increased delays within the city that will more than offset any time saved on the highway. Therefore, the highway will not reduce suburban commuters' overall commuting time. → This choice’s reasoning most closely parallels the reasoning in the passage. In the argument about damming the Merv River, the arguer concludes that a certain undertaking (building a dam) wouldn’t lead to an overall gain in agricultural productivity as a whole, because the drawbacks (reduction in productivity downstream) would more than offset the benefits (increase in productivity upstream).

    In this choice, we see the same structure. A certain undertaking (a new highway) wouldn’t lead to an overall improvement in commuting time, because the drawbacks (slow speeds within the city) would more than offset the benefits (faster speeds outside the city).

match the structure questions: Damming the Merv River would provide irrigation for the dry land in its upstream areas; unfortunately, a dam would reduce agricultural productivity in the fertile land downstream by reducing the availability and quality of the water there. The productivity loss in the downstream area would be greater than the productivity gain upstream, so building a dam would yield no overall gain in agricultural productivity in the region as a whole.

The reasoning in the argument above most closely parallels that in which one of the following?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Disease-causing bacteria in eggs can be destroyed by overcooking the eggs, but the eggs then become much less appetizing; health is more important than taste, however, so it is better to overcook eggs than not to do so.

  • (Choice B)  Increasing the price of transatlantic telephone calls will discourage many private individuals from making them. But since most transatlantic telephone calls are made by businesses, not by private individuals, a rate increase will not reduce telephone company profits.

  • (Choice C)  A new highway will allow suburban commuters to reach the city more quickly, but not without causing increased delays within the city that will more than offset any time saved on the highway. Therefore, the highway will not reduce suburban commuters' overall commuting time.

  • (Choice D)  Doctors can prescribe antibiotics for many minor illnesses, but antibiotics are expensive, and these illnesses can often be cured by rest alone. Therefore, it is better to rest at home than to see a doctor for these illnesses.

  • (Choice E)  A certain chemical will kill garden pests that damage tomatoes, but that chemical will damage certain other plants more severely than the pests damage the tomatoes, so the only gardens that will benefit from the use of the chemical are those in which only tomatoes are grown.

44
New cards
  • (Choice B)  Fruit salad that contains bananas is ordinarily a boring dish unless it contains two or more exotic fruits. This fruit salad has bananas in it, and the only exotic fruit it has is guava. Thus, it will probably be boring. → This choice’s structure is similar to the passage’s structure. We see an indefinite conclusion (it will probably be boring) and evidence based on an exception not being met (a fruit salad that contains bananas could escape being boring if it contained two or more exotic fruits, but this fruit salad has bananas and only one exotic fruit).

match the structure questions: Manuscripts written by first-time authors generally do not get serious attention by publishers except when these authors happen to be celebrities. My manuscript is unlikely to be taken seriously by publishers for I am a first-time author who is not a celebrity.

The structure of which one of the following arguments is most similar to the structure of the argument above?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)   

    Challengers generally do not win elections unless the incumbent has become very unpopular. The incumbent in this election has become very unpopular. Therefore, the challenger may win.

  • (Choice B)  Fruit salad that contains bananas is ordinarily a boring dish unless it contains two or more exotic fruits. This fruit salad has bananas in it, and the only exotic fruit it has is guava. Thus, it will probably be boring.

  • (Choice C)  Thursday's city council meeting is likely to be poorly attended. Traditionally, council meetings are sparsely attended if zoning issues are the only ones on the agenda. The agenda for Thursday is exclusively devoted to zoning.

  • (Choice D)  The bulk of an estate generally goes to the spouse, if surviving, and otherwise goes to the surviving children. In this case there is no surviving spouse; hence the bulk of the estate is likely to go to the surviving children. 

  • (Choice E)  Normally about 40 percent of the deer population will die over the winter unless it is extremely mild. The percentage of the deer population that died over the recent winter was the normal 40 percent. I conclude that the recent winter was not unusually mild.

45
New cards

match principle questions (not common on the lsat)

The principle underlying the argument above is most similar to the principle underlying which one of the following arguments?

Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle illustrated by the argument above?

46
New cards

(A) I do not know if I have repaid Farah the money she lent me for a movie ticket. She says that she does not remember whether or not I repaid her. In order to be sure that I have repaid her, I will give her the money now. → In this choice, the speaker presents what’s unknown to us—neither Farah nor the speaker remembers whether the speaker has paid Farah back. Since the speaker values erring on the side of caution (“in order to be sure that I have repaid her, I will give her the money now”), the principle underlying this argument matches the principle underlying the passage’s argument.

match the principle questions: Evan: I am a vegetarian because I believe it is immoral to inflict pain on animals to obtain food. Some vegetarians who share this moral reason nonetheless consume some seafood, on the grounds that it is not known whether certain sea creatures can experience pleasure or pain. But if it is truly wrong to inflict needless suffering, we should extend the benefit of the doubt to sea animals and refrain from eating seafood.

Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle illustrated by Evan's criticism of vegetarians who eat seafood?

(A) I do not know if I have repaid Farah the money she lent me for a movie ticket. She says that she does not remember whether or not I repaid her. In order to be sure that I have repaid her, I will give her the money now.

(B) It is uncertain whether all owners of the defective vehicles know that their vehicles are being recalled by the manufacturer. Thus, we should expect that some vehicles that have been recalled have not been returned.

(C) I am opposed to using incentives such as reduced taxes to attract businesses to our region. These incentives would attract businesses interested only in short-term profits. Such businesses would make our region's economy less stable, because they have no long-term commitment to the community.

(D) Updating our computer security system could lead to new contracts. The present system has no problems, but we could benefit from emphasizing a state-of-the-art system in new proposals. If we do not get new customers, the new system could be financed through higher fees for current customers.

(E) Isabel Allende lived through the tragic events of her country's recent history; no doubt her novels have been inspired by her memories of those events. Yet Allende's characters are hopeful and full of joy, indicating that Allende's own view of life has not been negatively marked by her experiences.

47
New cards
  • (Choice D)  The best way to fall asleep quickly is to engage in some mental diversion like counting sheep, because frequently the more one concentrates on falling asleep the lower the chance of falling asleep quickly. → This choice’s principle matches the passage’s principle. In the passage, the psychologist recommends doing something other than what we’re trying to do, because actively trying to do the thing is counterproductive to actually doing the thing.

    In this choice, the arguer recommends doing something other than trying to fall asleep (in order to fall asleep), because trying to fall asleep is actually counterproductive.

match the principle questions: Psychologist: The best way to recall a certain word or name that one is having trouble remembering is to occupy one's mind with other things, since often the more we strive to remember a certain word or name that we can't think of, the less likely it becomes that the word will come to mind.

The principle that underlies the psychologist's argument underlies which one of the following arguments?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Often, the best way to achieve happiness is to pursue other things besides wealth and fame, for there are wealthy and famous people who are not particularly happy, which suggests that true happiness does not consist in wealth and fame.

  • (Choice B)  The best way to succeed in writing a long document is not to think about how much is left to write but only about the current paragraph, since on many occasions thinking about what remains to be done will be so discouraging that the writer will be tempted to abandon the project.

  • (Choice C)  The best way to overcome a serious mistake is to continue on confidently as though all is well. After all, one can overcome a serious mistake by succeeding in new challenges, and dwelling on one's errors usually distracts one's mind from new challenges.

  • (Choice D)  The best way to fall asleep quickly is to engage in some mental diversion like counting sheep, because frequently the more one concentrates on falling asleep the lower the chance of falling asleep quickly.

  • (Choice E)  The best way to cope with sorrow or grief is to turn one's attention to those who are experiencing even greater hardship, for in many circumstances this will make our own troubles seem bearable by comparison.

48
New cards

identify the flaw questions

The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument

The argument commits which one of the following errors of reasoning?

The argument’s reasoning is questionable because the argument fails to rule out the possibility that

The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it

49
New cards

(A) illicitly infers a cause from a correlation → We predicted that the arguer takes a correlation (two things that happen at the same time) and jumps to the conclusion that one thing actively causes the other.

identify the flaw questions: The proportion of fat calories in the diets of people who read the nutrition labels on food products is significantly lower than it is in the diets of people who do not read nutrition labels. This shows that reading these labels promotes healthful dietary behavior.

The reasoning in the argument above is flawed in that the argument

(A) illicitly infers a cause from a correlation 

(B) relies on a sample that is unlikely to be representative of the group as a whole 

(C) confuses a condition that is necessary for a phenomenon to occur with a condition that is sufficient for that phenomenon to occur 

(D) takes for granted that there are only two possible alternative explanations of a phenomenon 

(E) draws a conclusion about the intentions of a group of people based solely on data about the consequences of their behavior

50
New cards
  • (Choice D)  It overlooks the possibility that small observational studies are far more common than large randomized trials. → In simpler terms, the journalist takes the relative higher frequency of newspaper stories about small observational studies (when compared with large randomized trials), and concludes from that that small observational studies must be more likely to have dramatic findings than large randomized trials. Why dramatic findings? Because of the evidence that newspapers generally report only only scientific studies whose findings sound dramatic. 

    The problem is that the journalist is assuming that small observational studies occur at roughly the same rate as large randomized trials, which—if true—would make it a little more likely that the small studies are more likely to have dramatic findings. But the journalist doesn’t demonstrate this! It could just as easily be the case that there are simply many more small observational studies than large randomized trials, and that would account for why there are so many more articles about the small studies.

identify the flaw questions: Journalist: Newspapers generally report on only those scientific studies whose findings sound dramatic. Furthermore, newspaper stories about small observational studies, which are somewhat unreliable, are more frequent than newspaper stories about large randomized trials, which generate stronger scientific evidence. Therefore, a small observational study must be more likely to have dramatic findings than a large randomized trial.

Which one of the following most accurately expresses a flaw in the journalist's reasoning?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  It casts doubt on the reliability of a study by questioning the motives of those reporting it.

  • (Choice B)  It fails to consider that even if a study's findings sound dramatic, the scientific evidence for those findings may be strong.

  • (Choice C)  It confuses a claim about scientific studies whose findings sound dramatic with a similar claim about small observational studies.

  • (Choice D)  It overlooks the possibility that small observational studies are far more common than large randomized trials.

  • (Choice E)  It fails to rule out the possibility that a study's having findings that sound dramatic is an effect rather than a cause of the study's being reported on.

51
New cards
  • (Choice D)  fails to distinguish between the crime rate's actually rising and people's believing that the crime rate is rising → The editorial calls for the government to act, but on what basis? On what 77% of people feel! What people think doesn’t necessarily match reality, so the assumption that what people think does match reality is a logical flaw in the editorial’s argument.

identify the flaw questions: Editorial: A recent survey shows that 77 percent of people feel that crime is increasing and that 87 percent feel the judicial system should be handing out tougher sentences. Therefore, the government must firmly address the rising crime rate.

The reasoning in the editorial's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  appeals to survey results that are inconsistent because they suggest that more people are concerned about the sentencing of criminals than are concerned about crime itself

  • (Choice B)  presumes, without providing justification, that there is a correlation between criminal offenders being treated leniently and a high crime rate

  • (Choice C)  fails to consider whether other surveys showing different results have been conducted over the years

  • (Choice D)  fails to distinguish between the crime rate's actually rising and people's believing that the crime rate is rising

  • (Choice E)  presumes, without providing justification, that tougher sentences are the most effective means of alleviating the crime problem

52
New cards

match the flaw questions

Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its flawed reasoning to the argument above?

The pattern of questionable reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following?

Which one of the following arguments exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above?

53
New cards

(A) When a flight on Global Airlines is delayed, all connecting Global Airlines flights are also delayed so that the passengers can make their connections. Since Frieda's connecting flight on Global was delayed, her first flight must have also been a delayed Global Airlines flight. → The problem here is the same as what we saw in the passage. The arguer cites Frieda’s one delayed connecting flight on Global Airlines as proof that Frieda’s firstflight must have been a delayed Global Airlines flight. But the support is that when a Global flight is delayed all connecting Global flights are delayed. So the logic is reversed and we see the same shift in scope from all to one.

match the flaw questions: Paleomycologists, scientists who study ancient forms of fungi, are invariably acquainted with the scholarly publications of all other paleomycologists. Professor Mansour is acquainted with the scholarly publications of Professor DeAngelis, who is a paleomycologist. Therefore, Professor Mansour must also be a paleomycologist.

The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments?

(A) When a flight on Global Airlines is delayed, all connecting Global Airlines flights are also delayed so that the passengers can make their connections. Since Frieda's connecting flight on Global was delayed, her first flight must have also been a delayed Global Airlines flight.

(B) Any time that one of Global Airlines' local ticket agents misses a shift, the other agents on that shift need to work harder than usual. Since none of Global's local ticket agents missed a shift last week, the airline's local ticket agents did not have to work harder than usual last week.

(C) Any time the price of fuel decreases, Global Airlines' expenses decrease and its income is unaffected. The price of fuel decreased several times last year. Therefore, Global Airlines must have made a profit last year.

(D) All employees of Global Airlines can participate in its retirement plan after they have been with the company a year or more. Gavin has been with Global Airlines for three years. We can therefore be sure that he participates in Global's retirement plan. 

(E) Whenever a competitor of Global Airlines reduces its fares, Global must follow suit or lose passengers. Global carried more passengers last year than it did the year before. Therefore, Global must have reduced its fares last year to match reductions in its competitors' fares.

54
New cards
  • (Choice A)  The campers at Big Lake Camp, all of whom became ill this afternoon, have eaten food only from the camp cafeteria. Therefore, the cause of the illness must not have been something they ate. → This choice exhibits a flaw similar to the inspector’s flaw: both arguments overlook an obvious possibility in favor of a different possibility. In the passage, the inspector never considers the possibility that Mr. Tannisch himself could have stolen the missing diamonds, and in this choice, the arguer never considers the possibility that the camp cafeteria’s food itself could have caused the illness.

match the flaw questions: Inspector: The only fingerprints on the premises are those of the owner, Mr. Tannisch. Therefore, whoever now has his guest's missing diamonds must have worn gloves.

Which one of the following exhibits a flaw in its reasoning most similar to that in the inspector's reasoning?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  The campers at Big Lake Camp, all of whom became ill this afternoon, have eaten food only from the camp cafeteria. Therefore, the cause of the illness must not have been something they ate.

  • (Choice B)  The second prototype did not perform as well in inclement weather as did the first prototype. Hence, the production of the second prototype might have deviated from the design followed for the first.

  • (Choice C)  Each of the swimmers at this meet more often loses than wins. Therefore, it is unlikely that any of them will win.

  • (Choice D)  All of Marjorie's cavities are on the left side of her mouth. Hence, she must chew more on the left side than on the right.

  • (Choice E)  All of these tomato plants are twice as big as they were last year. So if we grow peas, they will probably be twice as big as last year's peas.

55
New cards
  • (Choice D)  Because taking this drug does not cure the disease for which it is prescribed, but only reduces the disease's most harmful effects, doctors should not continue to prescribe this drug. → This argument’s flaw is similar to the policy analyst’s flaw. The policy analyst recommends against a certain action (increasing the police force) because it doesn’t prevent the entire problem (crime)—it only helps some (by preventing some crime).

    Similarly, in this choice, the arguer recommends against a certain action (prescribing this drug) because it doesn’t prevent the entire problem (the disease)—it only helps some (by reducing the disease’s most harmful effects).

match the flaw questions: Policy analyst: Increasing the size of a police force is only a stopgap method of crime prevention; it does not get at the root causes of crime. Therefore, city officials should not respond to rising crime rates by increasing the size of their city's police force.

The flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely resembles the flawed reasoning in the policy analyst's argument?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Some people think that rules with higher standards than people can live up to, such as those enjoining total honesty, prevent some immoral behavior by giving people a guide to self-improvement. But such rules actually worsen behavior by making people cynical about rules. Thus, societies should not institute overly demanding rules.

  • (Choice B)  Swamps play an important role in allaying the harsh effects of floods because they absorb a great deal of water. Although dams prevent many floods, they worsen the effects of the greatest floods by drying up swamps. Thus dams should not be built.

  • (Choice C)  Although less effective in preventing theft than security guards, burglar alarm systems are more affordable to maintain. Because the greater loss from theft when alarms are used is outweighed by their lower cost, companies are advised always to use burglar alarm systems.

  • (Choice D)  Because taking this drug does not cure the disease for which it is prescribed, but only reduces the disease's most harmful effects, doctors should not continue to prescribe this drug.

  • (Choice E)  We will never fully understand what causes people to engage in criminal activity. Therefore, we should investigate other ways to improve society's ability to combat crime.

56
New cards

necessary assumption questions

The argument relies on assuming which one of the following?

The argument depends on the assumption that

Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?

57
New cards

(E) Qualified teachers could not be persuaded to relocate in significant numbers to the educator's region to take teaching jobs. → This is a necessary assumption of the educator's argument! For the educator to rule out the possibility of increased student achievement due to the shortage of qualified teachers in the region, one thing that educator must be assuming is that there isn't a way to access qualified teachers outside of the region. 

You can also think of it this way: if qualified teachers could be persuaded to relocate to the region to take teaching jobs, the argument would fall apart! So, it's a necessary assumption that qualified teachers can't be persuaded to relocate to the region to teach.

necessary assumption questions: Educator: Reducing class sizes in our school district would require hiring more teachers. However, there is already a shortage of qualified teachers in the region. Although students receive more individualized instruction when classes are smaller, education suffers when teachers are underqualified. Therefore, reducing class sizes in our district would probably not improve overall student achievement.

Which one of the following is an assumption required by the educator's argument?

(A) Class sizes in the school district should be reduced only if doing so would improve overall student achievement.

(B) At least some qualified teachers in the school district would be able to improve the overall achievement of students in their classes if class sizes were reduced.

(C) Students place a greater value on having qualified teachers than on having smaller classes.

(D) Hiring more teachers would not improve the achievement of any students in the school district if most or all of the teachers hired were underqualified.

(E) Qualified teachers could not be persuaded to relocate in significant numbers to the educator's region to take teaching jobs.

58
New cards
  • (Choice E)   People rarely can be persuaded to change their minds about which candidate to vote for once they have made a decision. → This must be true in order for the argument to work. The arguer concludes that the columnists' efforts are rarely successful due to the fact that almost all voters will have already decided who they're voting for, by the time the column is released. The arguer is assuming that the readers can't change their minds.

necessary assumption questions: Syndicated political columnists often use their newspaper columns to try to persuade readers to vote a certain way. However, their efforts to persuade voters rarely succeed, for by the time such a column appears, nearly all who will vote in the election will have already made a decision about which candidate to vote for.

Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Syndicated columnists influence the votes of most of their readers who have not yet decided which candidate to vote for.

  • (Choice B)  The attempts of syndicated political columnists to persuade readers to vote a certain way in an election can instead cause them to vote a different way.

  • (Choice C)  People who regularly read columns by syndicated political columnists mainly read those written by columnists with whom they already largely agree.

  • (Choice D)  Regular readers of columns by syndicated political columnists are less likely to be persuaded to vote a certain way by such columns than are people who seldom read such columns.

  • (Choice E)   People rarely can be persuaded to change their minds about which candidate to vote for once they have made a decision.

59
New cards
  • (Choice D)  Theater managers generally believe that a film that is attractive to younger audiences is more likely to be profitable than other films.  → This choice has to be true in order for the argument to work. It matches our prediction, but we can also test it if we didn't have a prediction: what if theater managers generally didn't believe that a film that is attractive to younger audiences is more likely to be profitable than other films? That would seriously weaken the argument, and we would be left wondering why films that are considered attractive to younger audiences was even included in the first place.

necessary assumption questions: Theater managers will not rent a film if they do not believe it will generate enough total revenue—including food-and-beverage concession revenue—to yield a profit. Therefore, since film producers want their films to be shown as widely as possible, they tend to make films that theater managers consider attractive to younger audiences.

Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Adults consume less of the sort of foods and beverages sold at movie concession stands than do either children or adolescents.

  • (Choice B)  Movies of the kinds that appeal to younger audiences almost never also appeal to older audiences.

  • (Choice C)  Food-and-beverage concession stands in movie theaters are usually more profitable than the movies that are shown.

  • (Choice D)  Theater managers generally believe that a film that is attractive to younger audiences is more likely to be profitable than other films. 

  • (Choice E)  Films that have an appeal to older audiences almost never generate a profit for theaters that show them.

60
New cards
  • (Choice A)  Two-year-olds do not naturally prefer salty food to sweet food. → This is necessary to the argument. You might have looked at this and thought, "What do two-year-olds have to do with an argument about one-year-olds?" But don't dismiss a choice as irrelevant just because you didn't word your prediction in just this way.

    We predicted in the hints that the arguer is assuming that the one-year-old's taste preferences don't just change by themselves over the period of a year that the argument cited. That's conceptually similar to saying that the arguer assumes that two-year-olds don't naturally prefer salty food to sweet food (whereas we were told that one-year-olds naturally prefer sweet food to salty food).

necessary assumption questions: One-year-olds ordinarily prefer the taste of sweet food to that of salty food. Yet if one feeds a one-year-old salty food rather than sweet food, then over a period of about a year he or she will develop a taste for the salty flavor and choose to eat salty food rather than sweet food. Thus, a young child's taste preferences can be affected by the type of food he or she has been exposed to. 

Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Two-year-olds do not naturally prefer salty food to sweet food.

  • (Choice B)  A child's taste preferences usually change between age one and age two.

  • (Choice C)  Two-year-olds do not naturally dislike salty food so much that they would not choose it over some other foods.

  • (Choice D)  The salty food fed to infants in order to change their taste preferences must taste pleasant.

  • (Choice E)  Sweet food is better for infant development than is salty food.

61
New cards

strengthen & weaken questions

Strengthen:

Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the argument above?

Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the ecologist’s reasoning?

Weaken:

Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the argument?

Which one of the following represents the strongest counter to Ana’s argument?

Which one of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the reasoning above?

62
New cards

(D) Before the program aired, over twice as many people were against building the freeway than were in favor of it. →  If more than twice as many people were against the freeway project than were in favor of it, then it’s more likely that the news program was showing a representative sample of the population in its ratio of for/against interviews, and it’s less likely that the news program was actually biased.

strengthen & weaken questions: In its coverage of a controversy regarding a proposal to build a new freeway, a television news program showed interviews with several people who would be affected by the proposed freeway. Of the interviews shown, those conducted with people against the new freeway outnumbered those conducted with people for it two to one. The television program is therefore biased against the proposed freeway.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

(A) Most of the people who watched the program were aware of the freeway controversy beforehand.

(B) Most viewers of television news programs do not expect those programs to be completely free of bias.

(C) In the interviews, the people against the new freeway expressed their opinions with more emotion than the people for the freeway did.

(D) Before the program aired, over twice as many people were against building the freeway than were in favor of it.

(E) The business interests of the television station that produced the program would be harmed by the construction of a new freeway.

63
New cards
  • (Choice B)  Studies suggest that the kinds of oils in the fat included in the Mediterranean diet may protect the heart against potentially fatal disruptions of heart rhythms and other causes of heart attacks. → This information strengthens the argument, which is structured as follows:

    Conclusion: A diet may not have to be extremely low in fat in order to protect the heart 

    because

    Support: People who switched to a Mediterranean diet, which includes a fair amount of fat from fish and olive oil, were significantly less likely to have a second heart attack than those eating the Western diet.

    If the kinds of oils in the Mediterranean diet’s fat do good things for the heart, that strengthens the argument by making it more likely that a diet doesn’t have to be low-fat to protect the heart.

strengthen & weaken questions: In a recent study of more than 400 North American men and women whose previous heart attack put them at risk for a second heart attack, about half were told to switch to a "Mediterranean-type diet"—one rich in fish, vegetables, olive oil, and grains—while the other half were advised to eat a more traditional "Western" diet but to limit their fat intake. Those following the Mediterranean diet were significantly less likely than those in the other group to have a second heart attack. But the Mediterranean diet includes a fair amount of fat from fish and olive oil, so the research suggests that a diet may not have to be extremely low in fat in order to protect the heart.

Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Research has shown that eliminating almost all fat from one's diet can be effective in decreasing the likelihood of a second heart attack.

  • (Choice B)  Studies suggest that the kinds of oils in the fat included in the Mediterranean diet may protect the heart against potentially fatal disruptions of heart rhythms and other causes of heart attacks.

  • (Choice C)  The patients who consumed the Mediterranean diet enjoyed the food and continued to follow the diet after the experiment was concluded.

  • (Choice D)  Many people who have had heart attacks are advised by their cardiologists to begin an exercise regimen in addition to changing their diet.

  • (Choice E)  Some cardiologists believe that the protection afforded by the Mediterranean diet might be enhanced by drugs that lower blood-cholesterol levels.

64
New cards
  • (Choice B)  People who drive infrequently are less likely to follow rules for safe driving than are people who drive frequently. → If people who drive less often are less likely to follow safe-driving rules, then they could be riskier to insure despite the higher chances of being involved in an accident. So it’s not as likely that premiums should increase with the frequency with which a person drives, as the passage concludes—it’s more likely that premiums should decrease as someone drives more frequently.

strengthen & weaken questions: In order to determine automobile insurance premiums for a driver, insurance companies calculate various risk factors; as the risk factors increase, so does the premium. Certain factors, such as the driver's age and past accident history, play an important role in these calculations. Yet these premiums should also increase with the frequency with which a person drives. After all, a person's chance of being involved in a mishap increases in proportion to the number of times that person drives.

Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the argument?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  People who drive infrequently are more likely to be involved in accidents that occur on small roads than in highway accidents.

  • (Choice B)  People who drive infrequently are less likely to follow rules for safe driving than are people who drive frequently.

  • (Choice C)  People who drive infrequently are less likely to violate local speed limits than are people who drive frequently.

  • (Choice D)  People who drive frequently are more likely to make long-distance trips in the course of a year than are people who drive infrequently.

  • (Choice E)  People who drive frequently are more likely to become distracted while driving than are people who drive infrequently.

65
New cards
  • (Choice A)  There was a recession that caused a high level of unemployment in the city. → This information weakens the argument, which concludes that the program to improve high school students’ morale has begun to take effect to reduce dropouts. The reason the arguer believes this is that the program was instituted two years ago, and last year the high school dropout rate was a much lower than it was the previous year. In other words, the arguer takes a correlation and concludes causation from it. 

    This choice presents a classic weakener for an argument that is claiming causation: an equally plausible alternative explanation for the observed phenomenon. If a recession caused a high level of unemployment, then that could explain the reduced dropout rate: if there aren’t any jobs, it’s a safer bet to stay in school a bit longer! 

High school students who feel that they are not succeeding in school often drop out before graduating and go to work. Last year, however, the city's high school dropout rate was significantly lower than the previous year's rate. This is encouraging evidence that the program instituted two years ago to improve the morale of high school students has begun to take effect to reduce dropouts.

Which one of the following, if true about the last year, most seriously weakens the argument?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  There was a recession that caused a high level of unemployment in the city.

  • (Choice B)  The morale of students who dropped out of high school had been low even before they reached high schoo

  • (Choice C)  As in the preceding year, more high school students remained in school than dropped out.

  • (Choice D)  High schools in the city established placement offices to assist their graduates in obtaining employment.

  • (Choice E)  The antidropout program was primarily aimed at improving students' morale in those high schools with the highest dropout rates.

66
New cards
  • (Choice A)  The social impact of the new antihistamine is much better understood than that of most new drugs being tested. → The advocate concludes that there needs to be a reduction in the pace of bringing to the marketplace new drugs that are now being tested. Why? Because there’s a newly marketed antihistamine with an unknown social impact, and the advocate says that we should have a good understanding of a drug’s social impact before it’s introduced into the marketplace.

    The gap here is between the one drug (the new antihistamine) and drugs in general. If it’s true that the social impact of the new antihistamine is better understood than that of most new drugs being tested, and we were told in the passage that the social impact of the new antihistamine is “far from clear”, then the social impact of the other new drugs is even murkier! So this choice makes it even more likely that the new drugs currently being tested should be brought to market more slowly.

Consumer advocate: The introduction of a new drug into the marketplace should be contingent upon our having a good understanding of its social impact. However, the social impact of the newly marketed antihistamine is far from clear. It is obvious, then, that there should be a general reduction in the pace of bringing to the marketplace new drugs that are now being tested.

Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  The social impact of the new antihistamine is much better understood than that of most new drugs being tested.

  • (Choice B)  The social impact of some of the new drugs being tested is poorly understood.

  • (Choice C)  The economic success of some drugs is inversely proportional to how well we understand their social impact.

  • (Choice D)  The new antihistamine is chemically similar to some of the new drugs being tested.

  • (Choice E)  The new antihistamine should be on the market only if most new drugs being tested should be on the market also.

67
New cards
  • (Choice D)  Many commonly consumed foods that are neither fruits nor vegetables are fortified by manufacturers with the vitamins found in fruits and vegetables. → This information weakens the argument. The passage structure is:

    Conclusion

    Most people need to take vitamin pills

    because

    Support

    Nutritionists believe that a person's daily requirement for vitamins can readily be met by eating five servings of fruits and vegetables daily, butMost people eat far less than this.

    Eating five servings of fruits and veggies is sufficient to meet a person’s daily vitamin requirement, but that doesn’t mean that eating five servings of fruits and veggies is necessary. So, since this choice tells us that non-fruit, non-vegetable foods also contain the vitamins that people need, then that makes it less likely that most people need to take vitamin pills. They could get their vitamins through other kinds of food besides fruits and vegetables.

strengthen & weaken questions: Nutritionists believe that a person's daily requirement for vitamins can readily be met by eating five servings of fruits and vegetables daily. However, most people eat far less than this. Thus, most people need to take vitamin pills.

Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Even five servings of fruits and vegetables a day is insufficient unless the intake is varied to ensure that different vitamins are consumed.

  • (Choice B)  Certain commonly available fruits and vegetables contain considerably more nutrients than others.

  • (Choice C)  Nutritionists sometimes disagree on how much of a fruit or vegetable constitutes a complete serving.

  • (Choice D)  Many commonly consumed foods that are neither fruits nor vegetables are fortified by manufacturers with the vitamins found in fruits and vegetables.

  • (Choice E)  Fruits and vegetables are also important sources of fiber, in forms not found in vitamin pills.

68
New cards
  • (Choice B)  Headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath are among the symptoms of several medical conditions that are potentially serious threats to public health. → This information has no effect on the argument, so it's the answer. This choice tells us that some of what the passage indicates is an effect of MBTE is a serious threat, but that doesn't tell us anything about whether MBTE is actually causing those effects.

strengthen & weaken questions: Toxicologist: A survey of oil-refinery workers who work with MBTE, an ingredient currently used in some smog-reducing gasolines, found an alarming incidence of complaints about headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath. Since gasoline containing MBTE will soon be widely used, we can expect an increased incidence of headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.

Each of the following, if true, strengthens the toxicologist's argument EXCEPT:

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Most oil-refinery workers who do not work with MBTE do not have serious health problems involving headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.

  • (Choice B)  Headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath are among the symptoms of several medical conditions that are potentially serious threats to public health.

  • (Choice C)  Since the time when gasoline containing MBTE was first introduced in a few metropolitan areas, those areas reported an increase in the number of complaints about headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath.

  • (Choice D)  Regions in which only gasoline containing MBTE is used have a much greater incidence of headaches, fatigue, and shortness of breath than do similar regions in which only MBTE-free gasoline is used.

  • (Choice E)  The oil-refinery workers surveyed were carefully selected to be representative of the broader population in their medical histories prior to exposure to MBTE, as well as in other relevant respects.

69
New cards

helpful to know questions

Which one of the following would be most helpful to know in order to evaluate Dave’s theory?

It would be most useful to know which of the following in evaluating the politician’s argument?

Information about which one of the following would be LEAST useful in evaluating the argument?

70
New cards

(B) the profits the home lighting industry expects to make from sales of low-wattage bulbs → As a question: What are the profits the home lighting industry expects to make from sales of low-wattage bulbs?

  • High profits  this neither strengthens nor weakens the recommendation to buy low-wattage bulbs. Whether the home lighting industry expected to make high profits from these sales doesn’t affect whether homeowners should or shouldn’t use low-wattage bulbs instead of normal bulbs. The same is true of low profits, so we have the answer!

Because answering this question in any way doesn’t affect our ability to evaluate the argument, then this choice is the one that’s LEAST helpful to us

helpful to know questions: Millions of homes are now using low-energy lighting, but millions more have still to make the switch, a fact that the government and the home lighting industry are eager to change. Although low-wattage bulbs cost more per bulb than normal bulbs, their advantages to the homeowner are enormous, and therefore everyone should use low-wattage bulbs.

Information about which one of the following would be LEAST useful in evaluating the argument?

(A) the actual cost of burning low-wattage bulbs compared to that of burning normal bulbs 

(B) the profits the home lighting industry expects to make from sales of low-wattage bulbs 

(C) the specific cost of a low-wattage bulb compared with that of a normal bulb 

(D) the opinion of current users of low-wattage bulbs as to their effectiveness 

(E) the average life of a low-wattage bulb compared with that of a normal bulb

71
New cards
  • (Choice A)  whether the traditional techniques for building reed boats were in use at the time Tiwanaku was inhabited → Were the traditional techniques for building reed boats in use at the time Tiwanaku was inhabited?

    • Yes  this strengthens the argument by removing the possible weakener that the traditional techniques the archaeologists used weren’t available at the time. If that were true, then the experiment wouldn’t be a helpful indication of whether the stones could have been transported in prehistoric times.

    • No  this weakens the argument. If the techniques the experimenters used to transport the stone weren’t even in use at the time Tiwanaku was inhabited, then we can’t judge the prehistoric capabilities by the success of experimenters’ reed boat.

helpful to know questions: The ruins of the prehistoric Bolivian city of Tiwanaku feature green andacite stones weighing up to 40 tons. These stones were quarried at Copacabana, which is across a lake and about 90 kilometers away. Archaeologists hypothesize that the stones were brought to Tiwanaku on reed boats. To show this was possible, experimenters transported a 9-ton stone from Copacabana to Tiwanaku using a reed boat built with locally available materials and techniques traditional to the area.

Which one of the following would be most useful to know in order to evaluate the support for the archaeologists' hypothesis?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  whether the traditional techniques for building reed boats were in use at the time Tiwanaku was inhabited

  • (Choice B)  whether green andacite stones quarried at the time Tiwanaku was inhabited were used at any sites near Copacabana

  • (Choice C)  whether reed boats are commonly used today on the lake

  • (Choice D)  whether the green andacite stones at Tiwanaku are the largest stones at the site

  • (Choice E)  whether the reed boat built for the experimenters is durable enough to remain usable for several years

72
New cards
73
New cards

(C) Before breeding, shrimp of the species examined migrate back to the coral reef at which they were hatched. → This information helps explain why the shrimp are genetically different. While the shrimp might be carried among the reefs by strong currents, as the passage indicates is possible, this choice indicates that the shrimp return to the reef where they were hatched before breeding. So, even though the conditions are such that the shrimp could interbreed, this choice explains why they don’t.

explain or resolve questions: Populations of a shrimp species at eleven different Indonesian coral reefs show substantial genetic differences from one reef to another. This is surprising because the area's strong ocean currents probably carry baby shrimp between the different reefs, which would allow the populations to interbreed and become genetically indistinguishable.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the substantial genetic differences among the shrimp populations?

(A) The genetic differences between the shrimp populations are much less significant than those between shrimp and any other marine species.

(B) The individual shrimp within a given population at any given Indonesian coral reef differ from one another genetically, even though there is widespread interbreeding within any such population.

(C) Before breeding, shrimp of the species examined migrate back to the coral reef at which they were hatched.

(D) Most shrimp hatched at a given Indonesian coral reef are no longer present at that coral reef upon becoming old enough to breed.

(E) Ocean currents probably carry many of the baby shrimp hatched at a given Indonesian coral reef out into the open ocean rather than to another coral reef.

74
New cards
  • (Choice B)  Between the times that the two surveys were conducted, the average living conditions in L's country had substantially declined. →This information helps resolve the conflict in the passage. Why would most residents report satisfaction with their living conditions when their living conditions were below their country’s average, yet report general dissatisfaction when their living conditions were about the same as the national average? The conflict exists if you assume that the national average remained about the same from the first survey to the next. 

    Let’s say that when the first survey was taken, the national average for living conditions included an impeccably clean, 8-bedroom house and a 1% crime rate. At the same time, area L’s living conditions were a mostly clean, 7-bedroom house and a 1.3% crime rate. It’s reasonable that area L’s residents might feel generally satisfied with that.

    Then, when the second survey was taken, the national average for living conditions included houses with no roofs or running water and a 40% crime rate. If area L’s living conditions were about the same as the national average, as the passage tells us they were, then it’s reasonable that its residents would feel dissatisfied with that standard of living.

A survey taken ten years ago of residents of area L showed that although living conditions were slightly below their country's average, most residents of L reported general satisfaction with their living conditions. However, this year the same survey found that while living conditions are now about the same as the national average, most residents of L report general dissatisfaction with their living conditions.

Which one of the following, if true, would most help to resolve the apparent conflict between the results of the surveys described above?

Choose 1 answer:

  • (Choice A)  Residents of area L typically value aspects of living conditions different from the aspects of living conditions that are valued by residents of adjacent areas.

  • (Choice B)  Between the times that the two surveys were conducted, the average living conditions in L's country had substantially declined.

  • (Choice C)  Optimal living conditions were established in the survey by taking into account governmental policies and public demands on three continents.

  • (Choice D)  Living conditions in an area generally improve only if residents perceive their situation as somehow in need of improvement.

  • (Choice E)  Ten years ago the residents of area L were not aware that their living conditions were below the national average.