PSYC 201 CH. 1

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

structuralism

early school of psychology holding that even our most complex conscious experiences could be broken down into elemental “structures,” or component parts, of sensations and feelings

functionalism

early school of psychology that emphasized studying the purpose, or function, of behavior and mental experiences

psychoanalysis

personality theory and form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the role of unconscious factors in determining personality and behavior

behaviorism

school of psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning

humanistic psychology

school of psychology that emphasizes each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction

neuroscience

the study of the nervous system, especially the brain

culture

the attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to another

ethnocentrism

the belief that one’s own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others and the related tendency to use one’s own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures

individualistic cultures

cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the individual over the needs and goals of the group

collectivistic cultures

cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the group over the needs and goals of the individual

psychiatry

medical specialty focused on the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of mental and behavioral disorders

scientific method

a set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guides researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions

empirical evidence

verifiable evidence that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation

hypothesis

a tentative statement that describes the relationship between two or more variables

variable

a factor that can vary, or change, in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified

operational definition

a precise description of how the variables in a study will be measured, manipulated, or changed

statistics

a branch of mathematics used by researchers to analyze, summarize, and interpret the data they have collected

statistically significant

a mathematical indication that research results are not very likely to have occurred by chance if there truly isn’t anything to be found

effect size

a statistic that tells us, in general terms, whether a particular finding is small, medium, or large

meta-analysis

a statistical technique that involves pooling the effect sizes of several research studies into a single analysis

open science

the use of transparent research practices, including sharing the procedures of a study, the specifics of how the statistics were calculated, and the research data

replicate

to repeat a study in order to increase confidence in the validity of the original findings

theory

a tentative explanation that tries to integrate and account for the relationship of diverse findings on the same topic

descriptive research

research that uses scientific procedures for systematically observing and describing behavior

longitudinal design

research strategy that tracks a particular variable or set of variables in the same group of participants over time, sometimes for years

cross-sectional design

research strategy for studying a variable or set of variables among a group of participants at a single point in time

naturalistic observation

the systematic observation and recording of behaviors as they occur in their natural setting

case study

an intensive, in-depth investigation of an individual, a family, or some other social unit

survey

a structured set of questions designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group

sample

a selected segment of the population used to represent the group that is being studied

representative sample

a selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics

random selection

process by which every member of the larger group has an equal chance of being selected for inclusion in the sample

correlational study

a study that examines how strongly two variables are related to, or associated with, each other

correlation coefficient

a numerical indicator of the strength of the relationship (the correlation) between two variables

positive correlation

a finding that two factors vary systematically in the same direction, that is, increasing or decreasing together

negative correlation

a finding in which the two variables move in opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases

experimental research

a method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce a change in another factor

independent variable

a factor that is purposely manipulated to produce change in an experiment; also called a predictor variable

dependent variable

the factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment; also called the outcome variable

confounding variables

extraneous variables that are not the focus of the experiment but could affect the outcome of an experiment

random assignment

the process of assigning participants to experimental conditions so that all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions or groups in the study

experimental group

group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, including the treatment condition of the independent variable; also called experimental condition

control group

group of participants exposed to the control condition of the independent variable; also called control condition

testing effect

the finding that practicing retrieval of information from memory produces better retention than restudying the same information for an equivalent amount of time

double-blind technique

an experimental control in which both the participants and the researchers are “blind,” or unaware of the treatment or condition to which the participants have been assigned

demand charcteristics

in a research study, subtle cues or signals expressed by the researcher that communicate the kind of response or behavior that is expected from the participant

placebo

a fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no known direct effects

placebo effect

any change attributed to a person’s beliefs and expectations rather than to an actual drug, treatment, or procedure

natural experiment

a study investigating the effects of a naturally occurring event on the research participants

critical thinking

actively questioning statements rather than blindly accepting them

comparative psychology

the branch of psychology that studies the behavior of nonhuman animals