(2) Reconstruction 1865-1877

in progress

Why was the Election of 1868 considered a pivotal national moment in the context of Reconstruction?

It was the first national election since the Civil War and the first time southern states, including the Deep South, participated since 1860. The election served as a referendum on the 14th Amendment—with Republicans supporting it and Democrats opposing it. The outcome would determine the future of Radical Reconstruction and African American civil rights.

How did Ulysses S. Grant frame his candidacy in the 1868 election, and why did this resonate with voters?

Grant presented himself as a non-political figure—a “simple soldier” who avoided partisan ambition. He promised, “I shall have no policy of my own to interfere against the will of the people,” appealing to both North and South. His slogan, “Let Us Have Peace,” positioned him as a stabilizing figure after years of war and chaos.

How did Grant’s lack of political experience become both an asset and a liability?

His outsider status gave him integrity in the eyes of many, but his political inexperience left him vulnerable to manipulation. Over time, this contributed to widespread corruption scandals during his administration, undermining the credibility of federal governance and Reconstruction policies.

Who were the Democratic candidates in 1868, and what did they represent?

Horatio Seymour, former governor of New York and a Copperhead with sympathies toward the 1863 conscription rioters, ran for president with Missouri Senator Francis P. Blair Jr. as VP. Their campaign appealed to white resentment and opposition to Radical Reconstruction, aligning with rising white supremacist sentiment.

How did white supremacist violence shape the 1868 election?

Groups like the Ku Klux Klan, founded by Nathan Bedford Forrest in 1866, carried out systemic terror campaigns—murder, rape, intimidation—to suppress Black voters. In states like Georgia and Arkansas, thousands were prevented from voting. Despite this, 500,000 African Americans voted, ensuring a narrow Republican victory.

What was the “waving the bloody shirt” strategy, and why did it lose effectiveness?

Republicans invoked Civil War memory—blaming Democrats for Union deaths—to rally Northern voters. Initially effective, the strategy lost resonance by 1868 as Northern fatigue and growing sympathy for the South set in, especially as stories of Reconstruction corruption and economic stress mounted.

What role did African American voters play in the outcome of the 1868 election?

Despite intense voter suppression, African American turnout—especially in the Deep South—was critical to Grant’s win. With many ex-Confederates disenfranchised by the 14th Amendment, Black votes became essential for Republican political survival in the South.

Why did Republicans push for the 15th Amendment, and what did it accomplish?

After white legislatures like Georgia’s expelled duly elected Black officials, Republicans saw the need for constitutional protection. Ratified in 1870, the 15th Amendment prohibited voter discrimination based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude—ensuring the Black electorate could not be legally disenfranchised.

What were the key components of the Enforcement Acts, and why were they enacted?

Prompted by escalating Klan violence, these laws:

1. Made it a federal crime to deny civil/political rights

2. Placed federal oversight on elections

3. Authorized use of the military and suspension of habeas corpus to crush white supremacist terror.
   They led to mass indictments, especially in the Carolinas, temporarily reducing violence

How did Northern and Southern citizens react to the Enforcement Acts?

Many feared federal overreach and a permanent suspension of civil liberties. Northern taxpayers also resented rising costs due to Southern military occupation. This led to declining support for Reconstruction, even among former abolitionists and Radical Republicans.

What was the Liberal Republican movement, and how did it reflect changing attitudes?

Led by figures like Horace Greeley, these Republicans believed Reconstruction had accomplished its goals and now opposed continued federal intervention. They criticized corruption, supported civil service reform, and believed government overreach was fostering socialism and class unrest.

How did Grant manage to win reelection in 1872 despite growing criticism?

He won with an increased margin due to Southern Black support and Republican control of Reconstruction governments. However, political fractures widened, especially as economic strain (e.g. Panic of 1873) and scandals deepened Northern disenchantment with Reconstruction.

How did the Supreme Court undermine Reconstruction efforts in the 1870s?

Cases like U.S. v. Cruikshank and Slaughterhouse ruled that protection of civil rights was a state, not federal, responsibility. This severely weakened federal ability to combat racist violence or enforce the 14th and 15th Amendments—crippling Reconstruction.

What was the “Mississippi Plan” and how did it contribute to Reconstruction’s collapse?

In 1875, Redeemers used fraud, intimidation, and violence to dilute the Black vote, reclaiming state control. Republican Governor Adelbert Ames, facing impeachment threats, pleaded for help, but Grant refused federal intervention, marking a turning point in abandoning Reconstruction efforts.

What ended Reconstruction in the wake of the 1876 election?

The disputed 1876 election between Rutherford B. Hayes (R) and Samuel Tilden (D) led to a secret deal: Hayes would become president in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the South. With that, the last Reconstruction governments collapsed, ushering in Jim Crow rule

What internal changes contributed to the end of Reconstruction?

Death/retirement of Radical leaders (Stevens, Wade, Sumner) and rise of Republican factionalism.

How did prevailing intellectual currents affect Reconstruction's decline?

Belief in individualism, laissez-faire, and eugenic ideas led Northerners to accept Black inequality.

What effect did the Panic of 1873 have?

Undermined faith in Republican leadership and contributed to Democratic gains in 1874.

What did the General Amnesty Act (1872) do?

Restored office-holding rights to most ex-Confederates, enabling them to regain political power.

What weakened Republican governments in the South?

Internal divisions, declining Black voter participation, federal apathy, and backlash against “carpetbaggers.”

What were the Slaughterhouse Cases (1873) and their effect?

Narrow interpretation of the 14th Amendment; denied federal protection of civil rights from state abuses.

What did the SC rule in United States v. Cruikshank (1876)?

Federal government couldn’t prosecute individuals under the Reconstruction amendments—only states.

Did Reconstruction effectively end before 1877?

Yes—Southern resistance, Republican retreat, and social/economic pressures had already hollowed out its policies.

Why did Reconstruction fail in its commitment to racial equality?

Lack of unified political will, Supreme Court decisions, social ideologies, and prioritization of national unity and business interests.

What does Robert Cook identify as the primary reason for the end of Reconstruction?

Southern white determination to deny Black Americans equal protection under the law, despite temporary federal military presence and Northern support.

What was the impact of tying readmission of southern states to the 14th Amendment?

It ensured a swift return to civil government in the South, enabling white Democrats to regain political ground.

What was the political context for Republicans in the South once federal protection was withdrawn?

They had to compete with southern Democrats, who had strong histories of supporting slavery, secession, and white supremacy.

What role did the KKK play during the Grant-Seymour campaign?

Transformed into the paramilitary arm of the Democratic Party, the KKK terrorized Republicans, killing Black politicians and white allies, suppressing voter turnout.

How did the violence leading up to the 1868 election affect southern Republican campaigns?

In states like Louisiana and Georgia, Republicans ceased campaigning entirely due to fear, and Black voter turnout collapsed.

What was the “New Departure” strategy adopted by some Democrats after 1868?

A reluctant acceptance of the constitutional amendments and a shift toward reconciliation to attract moderate Northern and Southern whites.

What challenges did the “New Departure” strategy face?

Conservative Democrats rejected Black suffrage and cooperation with Northerners, ensuring white unity against Reconstruction efforts.

How did internal Republican factionalism weaken Grant’s Reconstruction efforts?

Divisions between moderates, former Whigs, and Black supporters made it hard for Grant to know which factions to support or trust

How did Governor Alcorn’s 1869 patronage strategy in Mississippi backfire?

His outreach to ex-Confederates alienated Black voters, who shifted their support to radical Republican Adelbert Ames.

How were conservative Democrats able to ‘redeem’ southern states in the early 1870s?

Through political terrorism, Republican weakness, and by framing Reconstruction as Northern revenge tied to Black power.

Aside from racism, what other issues weakened support for Reconstruction among southern whites?

High land taxes, economic hardship, and corruption linked to Republican state aid for railroads and schools.

Why didn’t Republicans expand their southern coalition to include more poor whites?

Policies to aid debtors alienated AAs, and elite Republicans preferred courting ex-Whigs, who often opposed Reconstruction.

How did conservative regimes restrict Black rights once back in power by 1870?

They implemented poll taxes and undermined plantation laborers’ rights while continuing economic development policies like railroad aid.

What was the political significance of the 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870?

It constitutionally protected Black male suffrage, especially in the South, and responded to both moral and political concerns about equal rights.

Why was the 15th Amendment controversial, even in the North and West?

Many white voters opposed Black suffrage, and Westerners feared it could extend the vote to Chinese immigrants.

What legislative action did Republicans take to enforce the 15th Amendment?

They passed five enforcement acts (1870–72), including the KKK Act (1871), which empowered Grant to use military force and suspend habeas corpus.

What was the impact of Grant’s enforcement of Reconstruction laws?

Initially effective in suppressing Klan violence, particularly in South Carolina, Florida, and Mississippi.

What caused the rise of the Liberal Republican faction?

Disillusionment with Grant over corruption and federal intervention in the South; preference for civil service reform and educational uplift over military enforcement

How did Grant undercut the Liberal Republican platform?

Congress passed the Amnesty Act, which removed restrictions on many ex-Confederates, neutralizing one of Greeley’s appeals

Why did Grant’s relationship with Charles Sumner collapse?

Disagreements over foreign policy, particularly on the Dominican annexation and the Alabama claims arbitration, which led Sumner to support the Liberal revolt.

How did the Republicans manage to win the 1872 election despite growing dissent?

Grant's appeal to Union loyalty, discrediting the Liberal revolt, and the Democrats' inability to fully support Greeley gave him a solid victory.

What events accelerated the collapse of Reconstruction after 1872?

Revelations of Republican corruption, Grant’s hesitance to intervene in the South, and the economic depression of 1873.

What groups made up the Republican Party in 1865–67?

• Moderates (largest group)

• Conservatives

• Radicals (smallest but most visible)

• Nativists

• Abolitionists

• Former Whigs (some nativist)

• Former Democrats (often anti-slavery expansion but not pro-equality)

Who had real power in the Republican Party post-Civil War?

• Moderates held the balance of power.

• Radicals were vocal, articulate, and dominated the spotlight but didn’t control the agenda.

• Example: Chair of Joint Committee on Reconstruction = William Pitt Fessenden (moderate)

  • Committee = mostly moderates, some conservatives, a few Dems

Why couldn't the Radical Republicans impose their ideas?

• They were not the majority and needed moderate support.

• They didn’t shift positions; moderates had to move toward radicals over time.

• Not in control—just highly vocal and media-savvy.

• Influential radicals: Thaddeus Stevens, Charles Sumner

What caused Radical Reconstruction to emerge in 1867?

• More than just opposition to Andrew Johnson’s plan—driven by Southern conduct.

• Key turning point: Southern resistance to 14th Amendment and use of Black Codes.

• Even moderates became worried South wasn’t remorseful.

• Johnson's leniency + rhetoric (e.g., defending rebels) alienated moderates

What caused moderate Republicans to shift toward radical policies?

• South's behavior (e.g., Black Codes, rejection of 14th Amendment)

• Fear of South regaining political power via 3/5 Comp removal → more seats

• Disillusionment with Johnson’s obstinacy and vetoes

• Need for Black votes in South to maintain political control in Washington

• Civil Rights Bill & Freedmen’s Bureau Act vetoes = final break with Johnson

Why did Republicans support the 13th & 14th Amendments?

• 13th: Abolishes slavery, removes enslaved people as property → South loses 3/5 Clause, but paradoxically gains more representation

• 14th: Pressures states (esp. Southern) to accept Black rights or lose representation. Strategic, especially in Deep South where AAs outnumber whites.

What were key features and problems of Johnson’s (Presidential) Reconstruction?

• Believed states never left Union → restoration = presidential prerogative

• May Proclamations = attempted unilateral restoration

• Sided with South against Congressional efforts

• Perceived as lenient; allowed old elites to regain power

• Rejected efforts to reshape South’s economy into free-labor capitalism

• Alienated moderates with speeches attacking Union loyalists like Stevens

• Vetoed Freedmen’s Bureau and Civil Rights Act → broke from Congress

What was the Congressional response to Johnson’s resistance?

• Overrode vetoes → passed 14th Amendment

• 14th not inevitable in 1866—radicals might’ve settled for Civil Rights Bill

• Johnson’s active sabotage led to Reconstruction Acts

• Radical Reconstruction took reconstruction out of his hands

• Impeached him (passed in House, failed in Senate)

• William Pitt Fessenden cast key vote against conviction to avoid radical (Benjamin Wade) presidency

What did Radical Reconstruction aim to achieve?

• Secure Republican political power in South

• Implement free-labor economy

• Enforce civil rights and protections for freedpeople

• Not necessarily motivated by belief in racial equality—slavery seen as backward, not morally repugnant by all

• Many moderates viewed Black labor as exploitable within capitalism, just not under slavery

How did the KKK resist Reconstruction?

• Terrorism, intimidation, murder to prevent Black voting

• Inspired groups like White Camellia

• 1868 election: bloodiest in U.S. history—major voter suppression

• Targeted Deep South (where AAs had greatest political power)

• First Mississippi Plan: voter fraud + violence to impeach Gov. Adelbert Ames

• Federal response: Force Acts, Grant’s DOJ briefly suppressed KKK

Why was the 1868 election significant?

• Seen as a referendum on the 14th Amendment

• Triggered large-scale white supremacist violence

• Grant elected with decisive support from Southern Black voters

• Proof that Black enfranchisement mattered politically

How did Southern Democrats adjust their strategy during Reconstruction?

• New Departure: claimed to respect freedpeople’s rights while pushing “good government” (coded white supremacist message)

• Blamed Black politicians for governmental failures—despite them being a minority

• L.Q.C. Lamar: opportunistic—supported Reconstruction govs for profit, then rejoined Democrats when collapse seemed imminent

• Internal racial tension within Republican Party weakened unity

What led the North to retreat from Reconstruction?

• Northern racism and fatigue

• Economic depression → fear of class war; wanted troops in North, not South

• Horace Greeley (abolitionist) believed Reconstruction should end

• 1874: Democrats win House for first time since war

• 1875: Civil Rights Act passed as tribute to Charles Sumner—but not enforced

• Seen as violating states’ and property rights

• 1883: struck down by Supreme Court

• Rise of eugenics and scientific racism undermined arguments for equality

Summarize the key reasons Reconstruction failed.

• KKK violence + organized white resistance (esp. Deep South)

• Johnson’s obstruction + Congressional stalemate

• Internal Republican divides (moderates vs. radicals)

• Northern fatigue, racism, and economic priorities

• Shift in public sentiment toward reconciliation with South

• Weak federal enforcement of civil rights legislation

• Supreme Court decisions undermined federal protections