pre-ap world history mixed

1. What is a gunpowder empire?

A gunpowder empire was a large, centralized state (e.g., Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal) that rose in the 15th–18th centuries by leveraging gunpowder weapons (cannons, firearms) for military dominance. These empires used advanced artillery to conquer territories and suppress rebellions, often maintaining multi-ethnic realms.

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What was the main language of the Ottoman Empire?

The primary language was Ottoman Turkish, a Persian- and Arabic-influenced variant written in Arabic script. Arabic (religious) and Persian (literary) were also prominent due to the empire’s Islamic and cosmopolitan nature.

What was the millet system?

The millet system granted religious minorities (e.g., Christians, Jews) autonomy to govern their own legal and educational affairs under Ottoman rule. This policy ensured loyalty and reduced conflict in the diverse empire.

What was a janissary?

Janissaries were elite Ottoman soldiers recruited through the devshirme system, where Christian boys were converted to Islam and trained as the sultan’s personal army. They became a powerful political force but were eventually disbanded for resisting reforms.

What was the Ottoman Death Race?

The Ottoman Death Race refers to the practice of royal fratricide, where new sultans executed their brothers to prevent succession disputes. Later replaced by imprisoning princes in the "Golden Cage" (kafes).

Who was Zheng He? What were the “Treasure Fleets”?

Zheng He was a Ming Dynasty admiral who led seven expeditions (1405–1433) with massive Treasure Fleets (hundreds of ships) to project Chinese power and trade across the Indian Ocean.

Why did the Ming Dynasty launch the Treasure Fleets? Why did they stop the expeditions?

The Ming launched the fleets to display power, expand trade, and collect tribute. They stopped due to high costs, Confucian opposition, and a shift toward isolationism after Emperor Yongle’s death.

What are some distinctive aspects of Ming porcelain?

Ming porcelain is famed for cobalt-blue designs on white backgrounds, high-quality kaolin clay, and intricate motifs (dragons, landscapes). It became a prized global export.

Why did the Renaissance begin in Italy?

Italy’s wealthy city-states (e.g., Florence, Venice), classical Roman heritage, and patronage by elites (Medici) fostered artistic and intellectual revival. Trade networks also spread new ideas.

What is a maritime republic?

Maritime republics (e.g., Venice, Genoa) were Italian city-states that thrived on sea trade, naval power, and commerce during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.

What is a doge?

The doge was the elected leader of Venice or Genoa, serving as a figurehead with limited power under oligarchic councils.

What industries emerged in the 1300s in Florence and Venice?

Florence: Wool, silk, and banking (Medici). Venice: Shipbuilding, glassmaking, and spice trade

. What is humanism? Why do some religious people object to humanism?

Humanism emphasized classical learning, human potential, and secularism. Critics saw it as undermining faith by prioritizing reason over divine authority.

What is a “renaissance man”?

A Renaissance man (e.g., Leonardo da Vinci) excelled in multiple fields (art, science, literature), embodying the era’s ideal of well-rounded genius.

What were some of the innovations of Renaissance painters? What is sfumato?

Innovations: Perspective, chiaroscuro (light/shadow), and sfumato (Leonardo’s blurred-edge technique, as in the Mona Lisa).

In what arts did Michelangelo excel? What were some of his most famous works?

Michelangelo mastered sculpture (David), painting (Sistine Chapel), and architecture (St. Peter’s Dome).

Who wrote The Prince? What are some of its main ideas?

Machiavelli wrote The Prince, arguing rulers should prioritize power over morality ("ends justify the means") and be feared rather than loved.

Who was Vasco De Gama? Why is he important?

Vasco da Gama sailed to India (1498), opening a sea route that bypassed Middle Eastern traders and established Portugal’s Asian empire.

What were some of the motives behind Spain’s support of Columbus?

Spain sought a westward route to Asia, gold, Christian converts, and prestige after the Reconquista.

How have views of Columbus changed over time?

Once hailed as a heroic explorer, Columbus is now criticized for enslavement, violence, and colonialism, with emphasis on Indigenous suffering.

Who was Hernan Cortes? What favored his conquest of the Aztecs and Montezuma?

Cortés conquered the Aztecs (1519–21) using superior weapons, native allies (Tlaxcalans), and smallpox, which devastated the Aztecs.

What are some aspects of Aztec life and society?

The Aztecs had a warlike theocracy, chinampa agriculture, and practiced human sacrifice to appease gods like Huitzilopochtli.

Who was Francisco Pizarro? What favored his conquest of the Incas and Atahualpa?

Pizarro captured Inca Emperor Atahualpa (1532) by exploiting civil war, surprise, and steel weapons, then executed him despite a ransom

What are some aspects of Inca life and society?

The Inca built terraced farms, roads (Qhapaq Ñan), and Machu Picchu, with a centralized state and quipu record-keeping system.

What was the Encomienda System? How is this like and different from feudalism?

The encomienda granted Spaniards land and Indigenous labor (like feudal serfs), but was more exploitative, leading to widespread abuse and population decline.

Why is Potosi both important and revealing about Spanish rule in the Americas?

Potosi’s silver mines bankrolled Spain’s empire but relied on forced Indigenous/African labor, exposing colonialism’s brutality and greed.

What racial and social hierarchy emerged in Latin America during the sixteenth century?

A casta system ranked people by race: peninsulares (born in Spain) > creoles (American-born Spanish) > mestizos > Indigenous/Africans.

What economic and demographic forces propelled the Atlantic Slave Trade? Where were most of the slaves sent?

Plantation labor demand (sugar, tobacco) and Indigenous population decline drove the trade. Most enslaved Africans went to Brazil/Caribbean (80%).

What happened to most of the slaves who went to the Caribbean and Brazil?

Enslaved people faced brutal conditions on plantations, with high mortality rates due to overwork, disease, and malnutrition.

What is the Treaty of Tordesillas? Who arranged for it?

The 1494 treaty, brokered by the Pope, divided the New World between Spain (west) and Portugal (east) to prevent conflict over colonization.