AP U.S. Government: Key Concepts in Constitution, Policymaking, and Bureaucracy

Constitutionalism

The Constitution limits government power through separation of powers and checks and balances.

Competing Policymaking Interests

Policymaking involves interaction, competition, and cooperation among branches.

Separation of Powers

Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches share authority.

Checks and Balances

Each branch can limit the others through vetoes, confirmations, and judicial review.

Federalism in Policymaking

National and state governments share power; cases like McCulloch and Lopez define limits.

Power Shifts Over Time

Branch power changes with political and national contexts.

Representation and Lawmaking

Congress represents the people and creates laws through committees and debate.

Judicial Influence

The courts interpret the Constitution and check other branches.

Public Influence on Government

Public opinion, elections, and media affect how branches act.

Bureaucracy's Role

Agencies implement laws and connect Congress, the president, and citizens.

Congressional Oversight

Congress's power to monitor executive agencies and ensure laws are followed.

Enumerated Powers

Powers explicitly granted to Congress in Article I, Section 8.

Implied Powers

Powers not written but derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Allows Congress to make laws required to carry out enumerated powers.

Commerce Clause

Grants Congress authority to regulate interstate and international trade.

Bicameral Legislature

Two-house Congress (House and Senate) balancing large and small states.

Filibuster

Senate tactic to delay or block a vote by extended debate.

Cloture

Senate motion requiring 60 votes to end debate and vote.

Standing Committees

Permanent committees that handle specific policy areas and review bills.

Rules Committee

House committee that sets debate rules and schedules legislation.

Discharge Petition

Forces a bill out of committee to the House floor with majority support.

Treaty Ratification

Senate's power to approve or reject treaties (2/3 vote).

Executive Orders

Directives by the president that have the force of law without Congress.

Veto

President's power to reject a bill; can be overridden with 2/3 vote.

Pocket Veto

Bill dies if president takes no action for 10 days and Congress adjourns.

Judicial Review

Supreme Court's power to declare laws unconstitutional.

Stare Decisis

"Let the decision stand"; courts follow precedent.

Judicial Activism

Judges interpret the Constitution broadly to address current issues.

Judicial Restraint

Judges defer to elected branches and avoid policymaking.

Iron Triangles

Stable relationships among Congress, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups.

Issue Networks

Looser alliances among policymakers, experts, and interest groups.

Executive Agreements

Agreements between the president and foreign leaders that do not need Senate approval.

War Powers Resolution (1973)

Limits the president's ability to deploy troops without congressional approval.

Impeachment Process

House impeaches (majority vote); Senate holds trial (2/3 to remove).

Discretionary Spending

Congress-approved spending (e.g., defense, education).

Mandatory Spending

Spending required by law (e.g., Social Security, Medicare).

Trustee Model

Representatives use their own judgment when voting.

Delegate Model

Representatives vote according to constituents' wishes.

Politico Model

Mix of trustee and delegate models depending on issue.

Bully Pulpit

President's use of media to promote policy goals.

Signing Statements

President's written interpretation of a law when signing it.

Senate Confirmation

Senate approves presidential nominations for judges and key officials.

Judicial Appointments

President nominates judges; Senate confirms; serve for life.

Amicus Curiae Briefs

"Friend of the court" briefs filed by interest groups to influence cases.

Pork Barrel Spending

Funding for local projects to benefit a representative's district.

Logrolling

Legislators trade votes to support each other's bills.

Committee Chairs

Senior majority members who lead committees and set agendas.

Congressional Leadership

Speaker, Majority/Minority Leaders, and Whips guide chamber business.

Bureaucracy

Network of executive agencies that enforce and implement laws.

Federal Bureaucracy

Example EPA, FDA, and Department of Education are part of the executive bureaucracy.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established judicial review; courts can strike down unconstitutional laws.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Upheld implied powers and federal supremacy; states cannot tax the national bank.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Segregation in schools unconstitutional; overturned Plessy v. Ferguson.

New York Times Co. v. U.S. (1971)

Strengthened freedom of the press; no prior restraint unless national security risk.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Racial gerrymandering violates Equal Protection Clause; race can't dominate redistricting.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

Limited Congress's power under Commerce Clause; gun-free zones not interstate commerce.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Corporations and unions have free speech rights to spend unlimited money on political ads.

Federalist No. 10

Madison argues factions are inevitable but a large republic controls their effects.

Federalist No. 51

Madison explains checks and balances and separation of powers protect liberty.

Federalist No. 70

Hamilton argues for a strong, single executive for decisiveness and accountability.