AP Psychology Unit 6 - Learning

Wash my belly

Learning

The process of acquiring new knowledge, behaviors, skills, or attitudes through experience, information, or practice.

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together; this can involve linking two stimuli or connecting a response with its consequences.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which one stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus and comes to trigger a similar response.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not naturally produce a response before learning takes place.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

An unlearned, natural response that occurs automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired repeatedly with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a learned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response that occurs after conditioning and is triggered by the conditioned stimulus; it typically resembles the unconditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial phase of learning, when the neutral stimulus begins to trigger the conditioned response through repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to trigger the conditioned response.

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli, resulting in different responses.

Pavlov’s Experiment

Ivan Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning by pairing food (US) with the sound of a bell (NS). Over time, the bell became a conditioned stimulus, causing dogs to salivate (CR) even when food was not present. This experiment demonstrated how behaviors can be learned through association.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or weakened if followed by punishment.

Component of operant condition

Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment - Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. Positive - Adding a stimulus. Negative - Removing a stimulus.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus in order to increase a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an undesirable stimulus in order to increase a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an undesirable stimulus in order to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus in order to decrease a behavior.

What is this an example of – Giving a treat for sitting down

Positive reinforcement, because a desirable stimulus (the treat) is added to increase the behavior.

What is this an example of – Yelling at someone for talking back

Positive punishment, because an unpleasant stimulus (yelling) is added to decrease the behavior.

What is this an example of – Taking away a child’s phone for misbehaving

Negative punishment, because a desirable stimulus (the phone) is removed to decrease the behavior.

What is this an example of – A car seatbelt alarm stopping when you buckle up

Negative reinforcement, because an unpleasant stimulus (the alarm sound) is removed to increase the behavior of buckling the seatbelt.

Primary Reinforcer

A naturally reinforcing stimulus that satisfies a basic biological need, such as food, water, or warmth.

Secondary Reinforcer

A learned reinforcer that gains its power by being associated with a primary reinforcer, such as money, praise, or grades.

Immediate Reinforcement

Reinforcement given immediately after a desired behavior, which strengthens learning quickly (ex. praise, treats).

Delayed Reinforcement

Reinforcement given after a time delay following a desired behavior (ex. receiving a paycheck or weight loss results).

Component of schedule reinforcement

Ratio - Based on the number of responses. Interval - Based on the passage of time. Fixed - Reinforcement is given after a predictable number of responses or amount of time. Variable -Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses or amount of time.

Fixed-Ratio (FR)

Reinforcement is delivered after a set number of responses.

Variable-Ratio (VR)

Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-Interval (FI)

Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after a fixed, predictable amount of time has passed.

Variable-Interval (VI)

Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.

What is this an example of – A free coffee after every 10 coffees purchased

Fixed-ratio, because reinforcement is given after a specific, set number of responses.

What is this an example of – Checking your phone for new text messages

Variable-interval, because reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable amount of time.

What is this an example of – Slot machines at a casino

Variable-ratio, because reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses.

What is this an example of – Receiving a weekly paycheck

Fixed-interval, because reinforcement is given for the first response after a fixed amount of time has passed.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing every correct response; learning occurs quickly, but extinction also happens quickly.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

Reinforcement is delivered only some of the time; learning occurs more slowly but is more resistant to extinction.

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to occur.

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)

B.F. Skinner used this chamber to study operant conditioning. A rat was placed in a box containing a lever that delivered food. Over time, the animal learned that performing a specific behavior (pressing the lever) resulted in a reward, demonstrating how behavior is shaped by consequences.

Shaping

The process of gradually molding behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior.

Token Economy

A behavior modification system in which desired behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for goods or privileges.

Behavior Modification

The use of reinforcement and punishment to change unwanted behaviors into desirable ones.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated until there is an incentive to do so.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of a physical environment that allows an individual to recall locations and plan routes.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution, often described as an “aha” moment, without the use of trial and error.

Intrinsic Motivation

The desire to perform a behavior for internal satisfaction, enjoyment, or personal reward.

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by external rewards or the desire to avoid punishment.

Learned Helplessness

A condition in which an individual believes they have no control over their situation and therefore stops trying to change it.

Observational Learning

Learning that occurs by watching others and observing the consequences of their actions.

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating the behavior of a specific individual.

Bobo Doll Study

Albert Bandura demonstrated observational learning through his Bobo doll experiment. Children watched an adult model interact aggressively or non-aggressively with an inflatable Bobo doll. Those who observed aggressive behavior were significantly more likely to imitate the same aggressive actions, such as hitting, kicking, and shouting at the doll. This study showed that learning can occur through observation alone, without direct reinforcement or punishment, and highlighted the influence of role models and media on children’s behavior.

Biological Preparedness

An organism’s inborn readiness to form associations that are naturally adaptive for survival.

Taste Aversion

A learned response that occurs when a person or animal associates a particular taste with a negative or unpleasant experience, often after only one pairing.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for animals to revert to innate, instinctual behaviors even after those behaviors have been conditioned through reinforcement.

Internal Locus of Control

The belief that one’s own actions and decisions directly influence outcomes and determine one’s fate.

External Locus of Control

The belief that outcomes are determined by external forces such as chance, luck, or fate rather than personal control.

Attention

The first step in observational learning; noticing and focusing on the model’s behavior.

Retention

The ability to remember and mentally store the observed behavior.

Reproduction

The ability to physically perform the observed behavior.

Motivation

Having a reason, incentive, or desire to imitate the observed behavior.

Little Albert Experiment

John B. Watson demonstrated classical conditioning by showing that an infant could learn fear through association. A loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) was paired with a neutral stimulus (a white rat). Over time, Baby Albert developed a conditioned fear response to the rat and similar furry objects. The experiment is widely criticized for ethical concerns, particularly regarding the emotional well-being of the child.

Habituation

A decrease in a response due to a frequent stimulus.

Higher-Order COnditioning

Using an established conditioned stimulus as an unconditioned stimulus to condition a new neural stimulus.

Counter-Conditioning

Replacing an unwanted response to a desired stimulus, a positive stimulus by creating a new association.

Social Learning Theory

People learn behaviors attitudes and emotional reaction by observing others.