Introduction to Anatomy, Physiology, and Cellular Biology – Lecture Review

Flashcards cover key concepts from the lecture: distinctions between anatomy and physiology, homeostasis and feedback, cellular structures and transport mechanisms, fluid balance, signaling, aging, and the historical contribution of Dr. W. Montague Cobb.

List the three broad subdivisions of anatomy.

Gross (macroscopic) anatomy, microscopic anatomy, and developmental anatomy.

What are the two main branches of microscopic anatomy?

Cytology (study of cells) and Histology (study of tissues).

What is embryology?

Study of structural changes from conception to birth.

What is pathological anatomy?

Study of structural changes caused by disease.

What is radiographic anatomy?

Study of structures using imaging techniques such as X-ray.

Put the levels of organization in order from smallest to largest.

Atom → Molecule → Macromolecule → Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism.

Define Homeostasis.

The body’s maintenance of a stable internal environment.

What type of feedback opposes deviations from a set point?

Negative feedback.

State a classic negative feedback example involving temperature.

Drop in body temperature triggers thyroid hormone release, raising temperature until normal, then hormone release stops.

What type of feedback amplifies a stimulus?

Positive feedback.

Which feedback loop forms a platelet plug after vessel injury?

Positive feedback.

Name the three basic components of a feedback loop.

Receptor, control center, and effector.

Describe the plasma (cell) membrane’s basic structure.

A phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails, proteins, and cholesterol; selectively permeable.

Differentiate integral and peripheral membrane proteins.

Integral proteins span the bilayer (channels, enzymes); peripheral proteins attach to a surface (receptors, support).

Function of desmosomes.

Button-like junctions that mechanically fasten cells and resist stress.

Where are hemidesmosomes found?

At basal surfaces anchoring epithelial cells to basement membrane.

What are gap junctions and one tissue where they are abundant?

Connexon-formed pores allowing small solutes between cells; abundant in cardiac muscle.

Which organelle is known as the powerhouse of the cell?

Mitochondria – site of ATP production.

Role of ribosomes.

Sites of protein synthesis (free in cytosol or attached to rough ER).

Contrast rough ER and smooth ER.

Rough ER packages newly made proteins; smooth ER synthesizes lipids/steroids, detoxifies drugs, stores Ca²⁺, breaks down glycogen.

What is the main function of lysosomes?

Digestive breakdown of macromolecules and cellular debris.

Differentiate cilia and flagella.

Cilia are short, numerous, move fluid; flagella are long, single, propel the cell (e.g., sperm).

Purpose of microvilli.

Increase cell surface area to enhance absorption.

Where are nucleoli located and what do they produce?

Inside the nucleus; assemble ribosomal subunits.

Effect of a hypertonic IV solution on RBCs.

Cells lose water and crenate (shrink).

Why avoid hypertonic saline in resuscitating an anemic patient?

It draws water out of cells, worsening intravascular volume deficit and potentially causing cellular dehydration.

Explain transport maximum (Tm).

The rate at which all carrier proteins are saturated; beyond this, no further increase in transport occurs.

Why does glucose appear in urine of uncontrolled diabetics?

Blood glucose exceeds Tm of renal glucose transporters, so excess is not reabsorbed and is excreted (glucosuria).

What is primary active transport?

Carrier-mediated movement of solute against gradient using ATP directly (e.g., Na⁺/K⁺ pump).

List one function of the Na⁺/K⁺ pump besides ion gradients.

Helps regulate cell volume/osmosis, maintain resting membrane potential, or produce heat.

Describe secondary active transport and give an example.

Carrier uses potential energy of another ion’s gradient (set up by ATP) to move solute; e.g., Na⁺-glucose symporter (SGLT).

What is endocytosis?

Vesicular uptake of material into the cell (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated).

What is transcytosis?

Transport of material across a cell by endocytosis on one side and exocytosis on the other.

List the four major types of cell signaling.

Neural, endocrine, autocrine, and paracrine.

Contrast endocrine and paracrine signaling.

Endocrine hormones travel via blood to distant targets; paracrine signals act on nearby cells by diffusion.

Identify primary cation of ECF and ICF.

ECF – Sodium (Na⁺) ; ICF – Potassium (K⁺)

How does water shift when ECF becomes hypotonic?

Water moves into cells (ICF), potentially causing swelling and dysfunction.

State one general effect of aging on tissues.

Reduced regeneration efficiency due to accumulated DNA damage and hormonal changes.

Define Homeostasis.

The body’s maintenance of a stable internal environment.

What is the primary function of the cell nucleus?

Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and controls cell activities by regulating gene expression.

What is the role of chromatin within the nucleus?

It's a complex of DNA and proteins that forms chromosomes within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, serving to package DNA into a smaller volume and regulate gene expression.

Define cytoplasm and state its main function.

The material or protoplasm within a living cell, excluding the nucleus. It is the site of most cellular activities, including metabolic reactions.

What are vesicles and what is their general function?

Small membrane-bound sacs that transport, store, or digest cellular products and waste.

What type of feedback opposes deviations from a set point?

Negative feedback.

State a classic negative feedback example involving temperature.

Drop in body temperature triggers thyroid hormone release, raising temperature until normal, then hormone release stops.

What type of feedback amplifies a stimulus?

Positive feedback.

Which feedback loop forms a platelet plug after vessel injury?

Positive feedback.

Name the three basic components of a feedback loop.

Receptor, control center, and effector.

Describe the plasma (cell) membrane’s basic structure.

A phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails, proteins, and cholesterol; selectively permeable.

Differentiate integral and peripheral membrane proteins.

Integral proteins span the bilayer (channels, enzymes); peripheral proteins attach to a surface (receptors, support).

What are tight junctions?

Zipper-like cell junctions that prevent passage between adjacent cells. Primarily found in epithelial cells

Function of desmosomes.

Button-like junctions that mechanically fasten cells and resist stress in high mechanical tissues (skin, heart, intestines)

Where are hemidesmosomes found?

At basal surfaces anchoring epithelial cells to basement membrane.

What are gap junctions and one tissue where they are abundant?

Connexon-formed pores allowing small solutes between cells; abundant in cardiac muscle.

Which organelle is known as the powerhouse of the cell?

Mitochondria – site of ATP production.

Why does MELAS syndrome cause lactic acidosis?

Mitochondrial dysfunction impairs aerobic ATP production, forcing anaerobic metabolism and lactate buildup.

Role of ribosomes.

Sites of protein synthesis (free in cytosol or attached to rough ER).

Contrast rough ER and smooth ER.

Rough ER packages newly made proteins; smooth ER synthesizes lipids/steroids, detoxifies drugs, stores Ca²⁺, breaks down glycogen.

Primary function of the Golgi apparatus.

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins into vesicles for secretion, membrane insertion, or lysosomes.

What enzymes do peroxisomes contain and their role?

Oxidases and catalase; detoxify harmful substances and break down fatty acids.

Name the three cytoskeletal elements and one key role for each.

Microfilaments – cell motility; microtubules – shape & intracellular transport; intermediate filaments – resist mechanical stress.

Function of centrioles.

Organize the mitotic spindle and form bases of cilia/flagella.

Purpose of microvilli.

Increase cell surface area to enhance absorption.

Where are nucleoli located and what do they produce?

Inside the nucleus; assemble ribosomal subunits.

Define simple diffusion.

Net movement of particles from high to low concentration down a gradient without energy or transporter.

Define osmosis.

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane from high to low water concentration.

What is tonicity?

Ability of a solution to change cell volume/pressure based on nonpermeating solute concentration.

Effect of a hypertonic IV solution on RBCs.

Cells lose water and crenate (shrink).

Define facilitated diffusion.

Carrier-mediated transport down a gradient without ATP.

State the stoichiometry of the Na⁺/K⁺ pump per ATP.

3 Na⁺ out of the cell, 2 K⁺ into the cell.

List one function of the Na⁺/K⁺ pump besides ion gradients.

Helps regulate cell volume/osmosis, maintain resting membrane potential, or produce heat.

Define exocytosis.

Vesicular process expelling material from a cell, also replacing membrane lost to endocytosis.

What is transcytosis?

Transport of material across a cell by endocytosis on one side and exocytosis on the other.

How does water shift

Water moves into cells (ICF), potentially causing swelling and dysfunction.

What is a hypotonic solution and how does it affect cells?

solution with lower concentration of non permeating solutes than ICF; causes cells to swell

What is a hypertonic solution and how does it affect cells?

solution with higher concentration of non permeating solutes than ICF; causes cells to shrivel

What are the three types of carriers and how do they differentiate?

Uniport (1 solute), Symport (2+ solutes same direction), and Anitport (2+ solutes in different directions)

What is phagocytosis?

“cell eating”, engulfing large particles

What is pinocytosis?

“cell drinking”, taking in droplets of ECF containing molecules useful in the cell

What is receptor-mediated endocytosis and how does it differ from standard endocytosis?

particles bind to extracellular receptors on plasma membrane which is more selective form of endocytosis.