Conservatism A level Politics

How do conservatives view human nature?

It is essentially imperfect, or has limited capacities (often related to the Biblical concept of 'original sin').

How do conservatives view society?

As organic i.e. an integrated whole that is more than the sum of its parts, whose value may supersede that of the individuals within it.

How does the New Right's view of society differ from that of more traditional conservatives?

They have embraced capitalist modernity and libertarianism, and arguably a more atomistic view of society.

What is pragmatism?

Essentially the idea that 'what's right is what works'.

What did Michael Oakeshott say that the aim of a conservative society is?

To 'stay afloat in uncertain waters' rather than sailing towards a specific destination which may prove illusory.

What kind of approach towards decision-making do conservatives take?

A flexible approach based on experience and empiricism i.e. identifying what has or hasn't worked well in the past.

What does the phrase 'changing to conserve' mean?

Making changes gradually and in an organic/piecemeal way, to acknowledge changing opinions and social conditions while preventing disruptive or radical social upheaval (e.g. revolutions).

This is an approach taken by conservatives.

Fill in the blank: the fear of ______ underpins much of conservative thinking.

revolution and violence

How has the fear of revolution and violence come through in conservative thinkers' writing?

Hobbes was writing in the aftermath of the English Civil War and Burke the French Revolution.

Why is tradition important in society for conservatives?

It stems from a respect for the accumulated wisdom and knowledge of our ancestors.

It also provides a connection between past, present and future generations.

What did G.K. Chesterton say about tradition?

"Tradition is the democracy of the dead. It means giving a vote to the most obscure of all classes: our ancestors."

What did Oakeshott say about tradition?

"Just as a plant's new leaves are connected to, dependent on and explained by the plant's roots and branches, so a society's present direction stems from its past development."

What do traditions provide?

- Informed guidance on how we should live our lives (based on past experience).

- A sense of stability/security that humans naturally crave.

- A way of building society together and furthering a sense of integration and belonging e.g. traditions associated with a school or nation.

What did Hobbes write about human life in the state of nature in his work 'Leviathon'?

Life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short".

How did Hobbes suggest that we prevent the state of nature from occurring?

With an all-powerful government.

What three human motives did Hobbes say would make life so bad in the state of nature?

- Competition

- Anticipation (diffidence)

- Glory

What did Hobbes mean by competition?

- People often desire the same things, and there is not enough for everyone.

- If there were obvious, significant differences in natural ability, the weak would surrender to the strong without a fight.

- But in practice, almost everyone has a reason to think they may 'win', hence people fight over the goods they want.

What did Hobbes mean by anticipation (diffidence)?

- Even if you have not faced competition, you might do so in the future.

- If you sit back, your adversaries are likely to grow stronger or have the element of surprise.

- So you're therefore better off making a pre-emptive strike before they do.

What did Hobbes mean by glory?

- Some people will attack because they overestimate their abilities, fear dishonour, or simply enjoy the experience of subduing others (desiring 'power after power').

- Even if you're not such a person yourself, the presence of such people reinforces your desire to 'anticipate' the attacks of others.

In what ways do conservatives believe human nature is flawed?

- Psychologically

- Intellectually

- Morally

How are humans flawed psychologically according to conservatives?

We are security-seeking, dependent beings who like to 'know our place' in social institutions.

Change and excessive liberty challenges this notion, causing a great degree of uncertainty which diminishes individual happiness.

How are humans intellectually flawed according to conservatives?

Even with education we are not capable of becoming perfectly 'rational' as liberals assume.

The vast majority lack wisdom and cannot comprehend the 'boundless and bottomless pit' of political life (Oakeshott).

Therefore, conservatives are suspicious of too much democracy, especially direct democracy.

How are humans morally flawed according to conservatives?

Our moral failings are often seen as rooted in the 'original sin' of Adam and Eve, of whom we are all descendants.

Humans are instinctively drawn to wrongdoing in pursuit of money, pleasure, power etc.

Those tendencies can only be controlled, never removed entirely.

How does Hobbes incorporate social contract theory into his views?

The state of nature is so bad that it's rational for everyone to agree to instill an absolute ruler and obey their laws.

In return, they are given protection of their lives, property etc.

How may Hobbes not be a true conservative?

He believes that the state is an artificial contract resulting from a rational decision to institute it (rather than a natural or organic entity).

Do all conservatives fully support Hobbes' view of human nature as inherently selfish and violent?

No.

Does Edmund Burke believe that a perfect society can be conceived of?

Yes, the 'crooked timber of humanity' can conceive of this, but is too flawed to achieve it.

For Burke, there is a 'chasm between our desire and achievement'.

Does Burke believe that humans are capable of wisdom and kindness?

Sometimes, but this mostly stems from traditional social moves and the church's teachings.

What does Burke mean by 'little platoons'?

We are more likely to be altruistic to those immediately around us - our families and local communities.

Instead of 'nasty, brutish and short', what does Michael Oakeshott argue that life would be without law?

"Noisy, foolish and flawed."

How does Oakeshott believe that humans can be benevolent?

Humans are 'fragile' and irrational, but can be benevolent especially when their lives are guided by ethical customs and religious principles.

Who are two examples of New Right conservatives?

Ayn Rand and Robert Nozick.

How do New Right conservatives argue that human nature is - and in Rand's case should - be driven?

By self-interest, a yearning for individual freedom and enterprise/innovation.

What role does the state have for New Right conservatives?

The 'minarchist' (night-watchman) state has a role in conflict management and protecting property rights.

What is meant by the 'organic' state?

A theory which holds that society, or the state, is an organism - akin to a living being - which is potentially more important than its individual parts (citizens).

How does Shakespeare convey the idea of the organic state in his play 'Coriolanus'?

- He compares the role of the Senate in Rome to the role of the stomach in the human body.

- The stomach is a storehouse for all the nutrients which dispenses them throughout the rest of the body; the senators collect grain and disperse grain to the rest of the city - without which it wouldn't function.

What does Burke think is natural and desirable within an organic society/community?

Hierarchy/power structures

Who does Burke think is able to govern well within this society?

As ordinary citizens are fallible and ignorant, only those with suitable experience and background are able to govern well (which feeds into his trustee model of democracy).

What should the organic state ultimately maintain?

It should aim to maintain historical continuity

How does Aristotle define the state?

A collection of individuals and sub-communities which promotes the highest form of human wellbeing (following on from his claim that 'man is a political animal')

What is meant by the 'evolution of society'?

The organic theory suggests that, like other 'living' things, society/the state are in a constant process of evolution

How does Burke explain the evolution of society in terms of continuity between generations?

'Society is indeed a contract ... not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born'

How could the evolution of society theory be applied to the environment?

- 'Green' conservatives argue that each generation has a responsibility for stewarding of the natural world, keeping it in trust with the next

- This underpins initiatives such as Cameron's 'vote Blue, go Green'

How could the evolution of society theory be applied to public finances?

- It's wrong to saddle future generations with the need to pay back debts due to irresponsible spending, so a balanced budget is needed

- e.g. motivating the recent austerity programme

What does the evolutionary stance on society ultimately oppose?

A revolutionary stance (Burke was particularly critical of the 'zeal' of the French Revolution, where even the alendar was altered to remove all royalist and religious influences)

What is meant by paternalism?

- Power being exercised in a benign way to promote the interests of the people

- It Implies that individuals may not always be the best judge of their own interests (contrary to the views of liberals like Mill) so the state/social elite should make decisions on their behalf in the manner of a 'father figure'

What idea is paternalism linked to?

The 'noblesse oblige' idea, that people of higher status have a responsibility to those lower down the social hierarchy (with privilege comes responsibility)

What branch of conservatism is paternalism most closely linked to?

One-nation conservatism, and is very much in line with Burke's trustee model of representation (which sees MPs as more knowledgeable experts whose role is to make decisions on their constituents' behalf)

What is, in many ways, the opposite of paternalism>

Libertarianism

What element of 'New Right' conservatism is libertarianism associated with?

Its economic elements

Name two libertarian thinkers

- Ayn Rand

- Robert Nozick

What kind of capitalism do libertarians tend to support?

- Laissez-faire capitalism

- This involves 'rolling back the frontiers of the state' and policies such as tax cuts, public spending cuts and privatisation

Why do libertarians tend to support laissez-faire capitalism?

They believe that it encourages individual self-reliance and enterprise, as well as promoting economic efficiency

What is the state's main role, according to libertarians?

Ensuring 'law and order' and military defence to facilitate the operation of a capitalist economy

What kind of view of society does libertarianism appear to promote, at first glance?

- An atomistic view of society, as a loose collection of individuals pursuing their self-interest, rather than an 'organic' whole

- This is perhaps implied by Thatcher's famous claim that 'there is no such thing as society'

What is Ayn Rand's model of society called?

An 'objectivist' model

What does Rand's objectivist model state?

We are, and ought to be, guided by rational self-interest and the pursuit of self-fulfilment (i.e. a strongly individualist and egoist view)

What does Nozick believe about society, contrary to Rand?

- People might choose to act out of altruism and self-sufficient communities, each of which can practise its particular moral codes and values

- This arguably represents an updated version of Burke's model of society based on 'little platoons'

Which school of thought could libertarianism seem closer to than conservatism?

Classical liberalism

How is libertarianism similar to traditional conservatism?

- It assigns a high value to private property (as property ownership may lead people to make more responsible choices (with regard to the environment, housing etc.))

- It accepts a 'hierarchy' in terms of economic outcomes (e.g. inequality of income/wealth is an inevitable result of people making different choices, showing different levels of talent and industry)

- It may also be claimed that free market conditions promote moral virtues such as hard work and self-reliance, which the 'welfare state' undermines by promoting a culture of dependency + laziness

How do libertarians differ from 'New Right' thinkers such as Irving Kristol?

- 'New Right' thinkers are much less liberal with regard to social issues e.g. supporting traditional 'family values', police powers, immigration controls and nationalism

- 'New Right' conservatism is sometimes distinguished as 'neo-conservative' as opposed to 'neo-liberal'

How do traditional conservatives believe that the social order can be maintained?

Through strict adherence to traditional values and ways of life (including religious faith)

What did Joseph de Maistre (French counter-enlightenment and pro-monarchist thinker) call for in the years after the Revolution?

He called for a social model based on willing submission to 'throne and altar'

What (arguably) makes Thomas Hobbes a traditional conservative?

- His negative view of human nature

- His support for an absolute ruler as the only alternative to violence and chaos in the state of nature

Do one-nation conservatives view society as organic?

Yes

How do one-nation views on inequality differ from that of traditional conservatives?

- One-nation conservatives believe that high levels of inequality undermine stability and a shared sense of community

- Benjamin Disraeli wrote in his novel 'Sybil' that the wealthy and working class Britons were as "ignorant of each other's habits, thoughts and feeling as if they were ... inhabitants of different planets", which he thought should be rectified

How does the idea of 'noblesse oblige' help the elite as well as the 'less fortunate'?

It helps to preserve existing economic/social systems and prevent revolutionary change

What kind of conservatism is pragmatism (accepting small changes to reduce the likelihood of more radical ones taking place) most closely aligned with?

- One-nation conservatism

- As Michael Oakeshott argued, 'one has to reform in order to conserve'

What are some examples of Conservative politicians who have adopted one-nation conservatism to broaden the party's appeal to all sections of society?

Churchill, Heath, Macmillan, Major

When did the 'New Right' emerge?

- In the 1970s in the US and UK

- This was a period in which conservatives had joined in a consensus around Keynesian economics, state welfare and (relative) social liberalism

- The emergence of the 'New Right' aimed to fight against perceived economic stagnation in this period, excessive trade union power and increased welfare dependency

Why were the 'New Right' not happy with the political moves of the 1960's?

- The 60's were a time of great social progress (i.e. moving away from tradition)

- In the 60's there was use of drugs, sexual promiscuity, loss of respect for authority etc. and the 'New Right' referred to this as a 'permissive society'

What two strands does the New Right consist of?

Neo-liberalism (economic) and neo-conservatism (social/cultural)

What book do libertarians generally draw their support for measures aimed at increasing economic freedom from, and what are some examples of these measures?

Friedrich Hayek's 'The Road to Serfdom' (1944) - they get ideas from this such as:

- Major reduction in taxation and tighter control of government spending ('rolling back' of the state to a minimal 'night-watchman' function)

- Linked to the above, tackling a culture of welfare dependency

- Privatisation and deregulation of public services

- Weakening the power of trade unions and local government bodies

What does New Right neo-conservatism seek to restore?

Traditional sources of authority, Judeo-Christian morality and national identity/patriotism

What are some specific examples of what New Right neo-conservatism beliefs may entail?

- Tough stance on law and order: increased police powers and stricter sentences - more discipline in schools and the family

- Robust national defence, including willingness to intervene militarily overseas to promote national interests (e.g. Iraq invasion, Afghanistan etc.)

- Controls on immigration, based on the desire to maintain a single national identity/culture

- Emphasis on national sovereignty and hostility to supranational institutions like the EU

- 'Anti-permissiveness' in social policy e.g. war on drugs, promotion of the nuclear family, sceptical of homosexuality and abortion

How could it appear that neo-liberalism is not compatible with neo-conservatism?

1) Neo-liberals value individual (economic) liberty, whereas neo-conservatives want to restrict (social) liberty

2) Immigration is a major area of disagreement - neo-libs such as Rand embrace it as a feature of free markets and individual choice; neo-cons believes it 'swamps' traditional communities and national culture, so should be restricted

3) Neo-libs seek to reduce govt. spending while neo-cons call for more spending esp. on defence and policing

How can neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism work together and be compatible?

1) Traditional morality (neo-con) may be a way of ensuring people act responsibly as agents in a free market (neo-lib)

2) Strong law and order (neo-con) is a way of protecting the property rights on which free-market economics (neo-lib) is based

- Especially given that inequality may lead to social tensions which need to be firmly 'policed' (e.g. Thatcher's response to the miners' strike and inner-city riots)

3) The family (neo-con) provides an alternative source of support once state welfare is withdrawn (neo-lib)

4) Reductions in welfare spending and privatisation sell-offs (neo-lib) are a way of providing more funds for police and military (neo-con)

In what ways do conservatives agree on human nature?

1) All cons reject anarchist/socialist idea of human 'perfectibility' by social or economic institutions

2) All cons believe human nature is flawed: morally, psychologically and intellectually

3) Most cons believe individuals aren't self-sufficient and need social structures and a sense of belonging (though neo-liberals agree, advocating rugged individualism)

4) Most cons cite our tendency to form bonds with those similar or close to us - Burke's 'little platoons'

In what ways do conservatives disagree on human nature?

1) Hobbes (traditional) - strongly negative view that competition, diffidence and desire for glory lead to 'war of all against all' in state of nature

2) Burke and Oakeshott (one-nation) more positive: we are capable of wisdom and benevolence, even if prone to error (and esp. with help of religion/social mores)

3) New Right conservatives (esp. Rand) emphasise tendency to pursue self-interest esp. in economic contexts, though Nozick thinks altruism possible even in a free market e.g. through charitable or non-profit enterprises

In what ways do conservatives agree on society?

1) Respect for tradition - 'democracy of the dead'

2) Social (often religious) mores and authority figures help foster security and social harmony

In what ways do conservatives disagree on society?

1) Emphasis on family/localism (Burke's 'little platoons') vs. nationalist stance of neo-cons

2) Traditional cons hold an organic view of society giving individuals a sense of identity as part of something 'greater' than themselves vs. New Right atomistic view of society as a collection of individuals pursuing self-interest

In what ways do conservatives agree on the state?

1) Strong state needed to ensure internal order (policing, punishment) and external security (defence)

2) State seen as natural for human beings - reflects a natural hierarchy and desire for rule-based order (vs. liberal view of state as serving individuals' interests)

In what ways do conservatives disagree on the state?

1) Over how much authority the state should possess (e.g. Hobbes - absolute monarchy vs. Burke - trustee model of democracy)

2) Over extent and role of the state in the economy

- one-nation cons support welfare provision to reduce social divisions

- BUT New Right cons advocate a minimal night-watchman state which guarantees rights over person and property, but doesn't redistribute resources

In what ways do conservatives agree on the economy?

1) Support for property rights - rejects centrally planned economy or large scale nationalisation

2) Economic inequality, to some extent, is inevitable and perhaps desirable

In what ways do conservatives disagree on the economy?

1) Pragmatic intervention by govt. (trad. and one-nation cons.) vs. market fundamentalism of New Right

2) Concern over (extreme) inequality as socially divisive (one-nation) vs. acceptance of unequal outcomes as a result of different choices/efforts/talents (New Right)