Social Deviance Exam 2

What are the common categories of murderers in American culture?

serial murder, mass murder, stranger murder, and acquaintance murder

Serial murder

those that kill strangers over a long period

Mass murder

one-time murderous events, and the victims are often students, teachers or random members of the public (ex. school shootings)

Stranger killings

non-targeted attacks such as drive-by shootings or killings during the commission of another crime

Intimate and acquaintance murder

takes place between family members, friends, and acquaintances.

Romantic and familial relationships are often the most intense personal connections, which can lead to distrust, jealousy, and anger.

What kinds of murder are most common and least common?

Intimate and acquaintance murder is the MOST common type of murder in the US.

Stranger murders are less common than intimate and acquaintance murders.

Serial and mass murders are the LEAST common.

What is the basis on which charges of “manslaughter” would be used rather than “murder”?

"to kill" is an objective description of taking a human life, while "murder" is a judgment that a specific killing belongs to a criminal category. In the United States today, some killings are viewed as "accidental" and are classified as manslaughter rather than murder.

Charges of manslaughter, rather than murder, would be used when the killing was neither intentional nor premeditated.

What is the current murder rate in the US?

4.5 to 4.8 per 100,000 people.

What is the US murder rate over the past fifty years?

Post-World War II (1957): The murder rate dropped to 4.0 per 100,000 people, the lowest rate since good records had been created.

1970s: Murder rates more than doubled, reaching a postwar high of 10.2 per 100,000 people in 1980.

Early 1990s: The murder rate was between 8 and 10 per 100,000.

Twenty-first Century: The rate has remained stable at 4.5–5 per 100,000

How common is murder for men in comparison to women?

Males account for nearly four out of five murder victims in the United States. Murder is far more common for men than for women. Murderers are also predominantly male.

Which racial groups have higher and lower rates of murder?

The risk of murder for African-Americans far exceeds that of white Americans. In 2014, the homicide rate for blacks was nearly six times higher than the rate for whites.

What age groups have the highest rates of murder?

Most victims of murder are late adolescents to middle-aged, with about six out of 10 murders occurring among people 17 to 39 years of age1.

What period of American history saw the highest number of lynching murders of African American men?

The late 1800s saw a peak in white-on-black killings in the South, described as among "the most barbaric episodes in the history of American homicide". Lynchings of black men rose sharply in the 1870s and 1880s, peaking in the 1890s, when they averaged about 100 per year. These lynchings almost always occurred on allegations of black men having raped a white woman.

What happened with the murder rate in the U.S. following World War II that surprised criminologists?

the murder rate continued to decline even after the war ended.

What does the term “domestication of murder” refer to? When did the shift to more domesticated murder occur?

a shift in murder trends where more murders occurred among family members and in the home, rather than between strangers or in public places.

The shift to more domesticated murder occurred following World War II.

how has U.S. laws related to capital punishment changed from the 1960s to the present?

There was a moratorium on capital punishment from 1968-1976.

32 states have since revised their criminal codes to allow capital punishment.

Today, about half of the nations in the world do not allow capital punishment and 18 US states prohibit it.

About what percentage of American adults approve of the death penalty?

Over 60% of Americans do not believe capital punishment deters murder, but nearly the same percentage support the death penalty. (56% in 2015)

Social Capital explanation for why rates of murder vary across different communities and urban neighborhoods

homicide rates are influenced by the degree to which communities provide social networks, norms, and trust that foster cooperation.

Social Capital:

• formal institutions (schools, churches, law enforcement)

• Collective efficacy (ability to achieve common goals)

• Social trust

• Civic engagement

In contrast, some impoverished minority neighborhoods are characterized by "negative social capital," where public organizations become instruments of surveillance, suspicion, and exclusion rather than vehicles of social integration and trust-building.

Stages of murderous encounters presented by Luckenbill

Stage 1: Personal Offense

• An individual engaging in some offensive behavior toward another person. (arguing, cutting someone off, etc.)

Stage 2: Assessment

• The eventual murderer assesses the other person's behavior. They try to determine whether it was a joke, an accident, or intentionally offensive. They define the situation and decide whether to take further action.

Stage 3: Retaliation

• The offended person acts to salvage their status by refusing to walk away or accept the dominance claims of the other party.

Stage 4: Working Agreement

• A decision to fight is made. An audience is often present and may encourage the conflict.

Stage 5: Battle

• At least one or both parties decide to use physical force to settle the issue. The dominance of one party will be determined through violence. Whether the event ends in criminal homicide or aggravated assault depends on factors such as distance to a hospital, quality of medical services, the weapon used, and the severity of injuries.

Stage 6: Resolution

• In the aftermath of the murder, the killer must decide what to do next. They may flee the scene (58%), stay voluntarily (32%), or be forced to stay (10%). The decision to stay is often related to the relationship between the victim and offender, and whether an audience was present.

How do the stages of murderous encounters presented by Luckenbill challenge common assumptions that murder involves an aggressive offender and a passive victim?

By highlighting the dynamic interaction and reciprocal roles that occur between individuals leading up to a homicide. It shows that victims are not always passive and may contribute to the events leading to their death.

Expressive murder

when emotionally charged interactions take a deadly turn, as in quarrels at a bar or domestic disputes that result in murder

Instrumental murder

involve killing as a means to achieve a material goal, such as murder in a robbery or killing a family member in hopes of inheriting their money

Is expressive or instrumental murder more common?

Expressive murder is more common

About what percentage of murders in the U.S. involve guns today?

70% of murders in the US involve guns

What are the three most common types of gun control policies in the U.S.?

Background checks and restrictions against gun purchases by individuals believed to represent a high threat of danger.

Restrictions on the kinds of guns often associated with violent crime, especially lethal weapons that serve no sport or recreational purpose.

Restrictions on where guns can be carried.

Gun control paradox

the discrepancy between high levels of public opinion in favor of gun control and the relative weakness of gun control legislation. The public generally supports restricting gun access in principle but is more ambivalent about enacting specific regulations. This paradox is also attributed to the political power of groups such as the NRA.

What are the major constructions or common categories of rape in American culture?

Stranger rape:

• Sexual assault by an assailant that the victim does not know. While this is the most common image people have of sexual assault, only about one in five reported cases involve assault by a stranger.

Acquaintance rape:

• Assault by someone the victim knows, such as a friend, intimate, or relative. This is more common than stranger rape, and most female rape victims are assaulted by someone they know.

Date rape:

• A type of acquaintance rape that occurs on a date or in a party setting.

Party rape:

• Rape that occurs in the context of drinking and partying, particularly among students at "party school" universities.

Marital rape:

• Rape committed by one spouse against another. Until 1976, many states had a Marital Rape Exemption to prevent husbands who forced sex with their wives from being charged with a crime. Today, all states have laws against marital rape, although many consider it a lesser crime than other types of rape.

Prison rape:

• Sexual abuse in prison settings. This often goes unreported.

Which are the most common and least common kinds of rapes?

Acquaintance rape is more common than stranger rape

About what percent of rapes occur at home or in the home of a friend or relative?

Around half of sexual assaults occur at home or in the home of a relative or friend.

About what percent of rapes are committed by a person unknown to the victim?

20% of cases of reported rape involve assault by a person unknown to the victim

What female age group is at the highest risk of rape?

Women aged 16–24 are at the highest risk of rape and sexual assault, with rates more than twice as high as for any other age group.

UCRs “legacy” definition of rape vs current definition

The legacy definition was: "Carnal knowledge (sexual intercourse) of a female forcibly against her will". The revised definition includes "any penetration of the vagina or anus and oral penetration by a sex organ of another person without the consent of the victim". This definition includes both female and male victims. The revised definition also removed "force" from the definition.

Which of the two (legacy and current definition) results in a higher number of crimes being classified as rape?

The current definition results in a higher number of crimes being classified as rape.

Based on UCR data, has the rate of rape in the U.S. increased or decreased over the past

twenty-five years?

Decreased. There was about a 40% decline in rates of reported rape since the 1990s.

What was the original meaning of the term raptus, from which the word “rape” is derived?

the term raptus described the use of force to "carry off" a woman against her will.

The notion was not necessarily one of harm, but rather of taking possession, often with the assumption that a girl would come to identify with her abductor over time. As the notion of "carrying off" implies, the focus of raptus was on theft rather than sexual assault. (property offense perpetuated against men)

In patriarchal cultures throughout much of human history how was the crime of rape defined? That is, what was the crime and who was it committed against?

Rape was primarily viewed as a crime against the father or husband of the woman, who were considered her "rightful proprietors," rather than as a violation of the woman herself. The focus was on the theft of a woman from her family.

"rape-free" and "rape-prone" cultures

Rape-free societies are those that discourage sexual aggression and encourage sexual equality.

Rape-prone societies are those that encourage sexual aggression and male dominance. A key component of rape-prone settings is the belief in rape myths, such as the belief that men are naturally sexually aggressive and that women often need to be pushed into having sex.

How was the issue of males forcing females to have sex treated in early colonial America?

It was not taken very seriously. It did not separate rape from other forms of immoral sexuality, such as bestiality, sodomy, and adultery.

• Force in the act of sex was not a major concern for colonial American men.

• Women were expected to resist, but only for appearance's sake, akin to the idea that "no" really meant "yes".

How did race relations and slavery influence the perception of sexual assault in colonial and early U.S. laws?

White women had a greater possibility of protection due to patriarchy, especially if they were of relatively high social standing.

Nonwhite women, particularly enslaved African-American women and Native American women, were more vulnerable to sexual coercion.

African women "could not, in law, be raped: no such crime was defined or prosecuted" in colonial Virginia.

How did laws regarding rape change following the Civil War?

rape laws became less discriminatory toward blacks and took away significant white male power.

How was the “black beast rape myth” used against Black men in the south?

a myth that portrayed black men as oversexed monsters intent on raping white women.

How was rape a “weapon of terror” against freed black women in the South after the Civil War?

White men used rape as a weapon of terror to intimidate freed black women and their families.

What are the major ways in which the feminist movement in the 1960s and 1970s influenced cultural understanding of sexual assault in the U.S.?

• Major legal changes in support of women’s rights

  • Rape Law

    • No longer required to pass a polygraph test

    • Evidence of penile penetration not required

    • Repeal of “Marital Rape exemption”

      • laws recognizing marital rape as a crime

    • Rape Shield Laws

      • Were created to protect rape survivors during trials by not allowing the victim’s past sexual history to be used agaisnt them

  • Rape trauma syndrome proposed

    • a form of posttraumatic stress disorder

Rape proclivity theory

Rape proclivity theory posits that certain characteristics must converge in a man to motivate him to commit rape. These include:

• Becoming aroused by sexual assault.

• Feelings of hostility toward women.

• Attitudes that support violence toward women.

• Participating in promiscuous sex.

Application to Off-Campus Student Party: According to rape proclivity theory, an individual most likely to commit rape at an off-campus student party would be someone who exhibits the characteristics listed above.

Routine activities theory

Routine activities theory suggests that victimization occurs in places where individuals are vulnerable targets, in the presence of motivated offenders, and in the absence of capable guardians.

Application to Sexual Assault at a Party: Routine activities theory explains the relatively high risk of sexual assault at a party due to:

• Vulnerable Targets: Intoxicated young women.

• Motivated Offenders: Young men looking for sexual opportunities.

• Lack of Capable Guardians: Dimly lit, loud, and crowded college bars and fraternity parties often lack supervision.

What is the Jeanne Clery Act? What does it require that universities do?

The Jeanne Clery Act is a federal law, originally known as the Crime Awareness and Campus Security Act, enacted in 1990. It requires colleges and universities that participate in federal financial aid programs to report information about crime on and near their respective campuses.

• Publish annual crime reports.

• Disclose their security policies.

• Provide support for victims of campus sexual assaults.

• Disseminate campus crime statistics.

Reasons why a person might not immediately report being raped

• Fear of the attacker.

• Embarrassment.

• Not clearly understanding the legal definition of rape.

• Not wanting to define someone they know, such as a family member or close friend, as a rapist.

• Worrying that others might blame them for the assault.

• Being too traumatized to go to the police.

• Not feeling clear in their own minds that they have, in fact, been sexually assaulted.

• Following the trauma of being raped, many women withdraw into themselves and keep their experiences secret, or reveal them only to a few close family members or friends.

Factors that would make it more likely that a victim will report sexual assault:

• When family members or coworkers encourage them to define what happened as "rape" and to go to the police.

• Stranger rape cases that closely fit cultural stereotypes of "real" rape, are more likely to be defined at the moment they occur as a violent criminal act and reported to the police soon after the assault.

• A more supportive understanding of rape as a serious crime, as well as recognition that rape can occur between intimates and acquaintances, has emboldened many women to report rapes that they would not have reported in the past.

What kinds of considerations do prosecuting attorneys tend to emphasize in determining which claims of rape are taken to court?

• they consider their own reputations and careers (conviction rates)

• They often fall back on stereotypes of what "clear rape cases" and "good witnesses" should look like.

• They expect women who are strong cases for rape charges to demonstrate upstanding character and be consistent in their accounts of what happened to them.

• In cases of stranger rape, prosecutors are far more likely to file charges if a weapon such as a gun or knife was used in the assault.

Second Rape

refers to the experience of rape victims in the criminal justice system, where they may feel abused and degraded in interactions with police, medical personnel, and the court system.

Victims often feel mistreated when they are subjected to cross-examination by defense attorneys who seek to discredit their accounts and who may find ways around rape shield laws in order to present embarrassing information about the victim's sexual history.

What are the common categories of street-level property crime in the US?

robbery, burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft

Robbery

illegally taking another person’s property in their presence by using violence or intimidation. The threat of violence distinguishes robbery from other property crimes.

Burglary

unlawfully entering a building (e.g., home or business) with the intent to commit theft.

Larceny-theft

unlawfully taking property from another's possession without the threat of force or unlawful entry. Larceny-theft includes crimes like shoplifting, purse-snatching, and bicycle theft.

motor vehicle theft

the stealing of any motorized vehicle such as cars, motorcycles, etc.

Ranking of street-level property crime

1. Larceny-theft accounts for nearly 70% of all property crimes.

2. Burglary accounts for almost 20% of reported property crimes.

3. Motor vehicle theft accounts for about 8% of property crimes.

4. Robbery is the least common of these crimes, representing only 4% of financially motivated street crimes.

How has the amount of street-level property crime changed over the last twenty-five

years?

The numbers and rates of street-level property crime in the United States have declined dramatically in recent years. Today, property crime rates in the United States are less than half of what they were 40 years ago.

rank the following crimes in terms of the likelihood that victims will report

them to the police: robbery, burglary, motor vehicle theft, and larceny-theft.

1. Motor vehicle theft: Around 69% of motor vehicle thefts are reported to the police.

2. Robbery: Approximately 62% of robberies are reported.

3. Burglary: Around 50% of burglaries are reported.

4. Larceny-theft: Only about 29% of larceny-thefts are reported to law enforcement.

In their research with active robbers, Wright and Decker found that robbers often targeted small time drug dealers and men seeking prostitutes as good people to rob. Why?

Many robbery victims are also involved in law breaking.

• Drug dealers typically use cash for their transactions, so they tend to carry a lot of money on them.

• By virtue of their own illicit activities, drug dealers are unlikely to go to the police for assistance if they have been robbed.

• Married men, especially intoxicated ones, in search of a prostitute are ideal victims because of the likelihood that they are carrying cash and that they will not report the robbery for fear of their illicit activities becoming public.

What approach to crime was promoted by Zebulon Brockway and the American Prison Association during the late 1800s?

an approach to crime focused on reform and moral transformation of the criminal. Incarceration was intended to provide an environment where criminals could learn good discipline, be removed from bad influences, reflect on their misdeeds, and seek moral redemption.

Since World War II, what period of time has seen the highest rates of street-level

property crime in the U.S.?

The period from 1960 to the early 1980s saw a significant rise in street-level property crime in the U.S. Americans' fear of crime shot up during those years.

What do we know about the degree of planning involved in most street crime?

• Most street-level property crime is spur-of-the-moment activity with very little planning.

• There is little time or inclination on the part of the offender to do more than find a vulnerable target and commit the crime.

• Burglary presents a greater need for planning than do other forms of street-level thievery like shoplifting and robbery.

Which is more common, burglary or robbery? Why?

Burglary is far more common than robbery. Most property offenders prefer to steal property without having to engage in direct confrontation.

What is meant by the term “life as party” and how does it fit into the stealing

done by persistent property thieves?

It refers to the lifestyle orientation of persistent thieves, which is focused on enjoying good times, usually with drugs and alcohol, and with little concern for other commitments. The need for money to support this lifestyle motivates them to engage in criminal activity.

How much of a role does fear of getting caught play in property thieves’ decisions to commit their crimes?

The fear of getting caught generally does not play a significant role in property thieves' decisions to commit crimes.

• they simply do not think about the possible legal consequences of their criminal actions before committing crimes.

• Persistent thieves tend to live in the moment, not thinking about committing a theft until the need strikes.

How are the experiences of lower-class and minority offenders different from more affluent white offenders in terms of likelihood of arrest?

• Poor and minority urban neighborhoods are disproportionately subject to heavy policing for drug crimes, leading to higher arrest rates, especially for African-American men.

• Law enforcement personnel tend to watch and react more severely to African-American males than to white males, leading to higher rates of arrest.

How are the experiences of lower-class and minority offenders different from more affluent white offenders in terms of treatment in courts?

• Lower-class offenders are more likely to be refused the opportunity or be financially unable to make bail and thus be released until court hearings.

• Their cases are more likely to be handled by overburdened public defenders.

How are the experiences of lower-class and minority offenders different from more affluent white offenders in terms of criminal sentencing?

Lower-class and minority offenders are more likely to be convicted of the crimes for which they have been charged.

How are the experiences of lower-class and minority offenders different from more affluent white offenders in terms of time served in prison?

Once in prison, lower-class and minority offenders serve longer prison terms than their more affluent and white counterparts.

What percentage of Americans in prison are either Black or Hispanic? How does this compare with their percentage of the total U.S. population?

60% of the US prison population is African-American and Hispanic. This is twice as high as their percentage of the total U.S. population. While African-Americans make up approximately 13% of the total US population, they account for over half of drug offenders in state prisons.

How have the “tough on crime” policies of the past thirty years impacted the numbers of prison inmates and length of offenders’ time in prison?

• Increased Incarceration Rates

• Longer Prison Sentences

• Drug-Related Incarceration

• Racial Disparities

  • The rates of incarceration for poor and minority young men have increased most dramatically

• Limited Opportunities After Release

  • Ex. It can be extremely difficult for convicted felons to compete for jobs after they are released from prison.

What does research from the Vera Institute of Justice and the Rand Corporation have to say about the relationship between prison education programs and rates of recidivism?

It says that investing in prison education is more humane and cost-effective than punitive incarceration, and that correctional education programs reduce recidivism.

• inmates who participate in an education program are 43% less likely than other inmates to return to prison within 3 years of release.

How common are college education programs for incarcerated offenders today?

Rare within the US CJ system.

• There is vocal opposition to offering college education to criminal offenders.

• “rewarding lawbreakers”