AP Psychology Motivation & Emotion Review

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned through species and is unlearned (e.g., imprinting in birds or the return of salmon to their birthplace to spawn). reflexes in human infants are too simple to be considered instincts.

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological NEED creates an aroused state of tension (DRIVE) that motivates an organism to satisfy that need

NEED (for food or water) —> DRIVE (hunger or thirst) —> DRIVE-REDUCING BEHAVIORS (eating or drinking)

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state, the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as body glucose, around a particular level

drive-reduction theory is based on this concept

arousal theory

rather than reducing a physiological need or tension state, some motivated behaviors increase arousal. curiosity-driven behaviors, for example, suggest that too little as well as too much stimulation can motivate people to see an optimum level of arousal

incentive theory

theory that even if a need or drive is not originally present, positive or negative environmental stimuli may motivate behavior (e.g., after finishing a meal, and feeling totally satisfied, we may become hungry again if we see or smell a delicious dessert)

hierarchy of needs

maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level needs become active

physiological needs

food, water, warmth, rest (first basic need)

safety needs

security, safety (second basic needs)

belongingness and love needs

intimate relationships, friends (first psychological need)

esteem needs

prestige and feeling of accomplishment (second psychological need)

self-actualization

achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities (self-fulfilment needs)

optimal arousal theory

claims the level of arousal for optimal performance varies with the task - some motivated behaviors actually increase arousal. unlike drive-reduction theories which say that we do something to eliminate arousal, this theory claims we do things to increase arousal

yerkes-dodson law

usually perform most activities best when moderately aroused. we perform difficult or newly learned tasks better at lower levels of arousal and we tend to perform easy or well-learned tasks at a higher level of arousal

emotion

response that includes physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious thoughts

james-lange theory (william james and carl lange)

stimulus = snake; a. physiological reaction occurs FIRST such as heart rate, pulse, or breathing increases; b. emotion follows - fear

this claims that there is a unique set of physiological symptoms for each emotion. psychological behavior CAUSES emotions. so, if we smile, we start to feel happy

cannon-bard theory (walter cannon and phil bard)

stimulus = snake; a. thalamus sends message to the cortex and internal organs SIMULTANEOUSLY; b. experience emotion (fear) and physiological behavior (heart pounding) at the same time

doesn’t believe the body’s responses are distinct enough to differentiate between love and anger and fear. they all have similar physiology

cognition theory - schachter two-factor theory (stanley schachter and jerome singer)

stimulus = snake; a. physiological response occurs - heart pounding; b. mind interprets the experience - look there is a snake! OMG!; c. emotion is labeled - i must be feeling fear!

the same physical response (heart pounding) could happen later in the day. but, the mind might interpret that differently (wow, a cute guy is looking at me). the emotion is then labeled (i’m in love!)
how we think about events affects the experience of the emotion. we have power over our emotional state. the same physiological responses can give rise to any number of labels. this is especially true for complex emotions such as love, depression, hatred, frustration

criticism

some physiological responses to a stimulus can trigger emotion before the brain has a chance to interpret them as simple emotions such as fear, dislike, disgust

robert zajonc

we have an emotional reaction BEFORE we interpret a situation. some (fear) responses happen without conscious appraisal

richard lazarus

our brain processes vast amounts of information without our awareness and SOME emotional responses do not require conscious thinking (similar to zajonc). HOWEVER, there is still cognitical appraisal happening, we just might not be aware of it. this still makes it a cognitive process (similar to the two-factor theory)

lie detection

polygraph is the machine used to detect lies by measuring severe physiological responses (perspiration, heart rate, breathing). assumes that these responses will RISE when the person lies due to emotion. NOT VERY ACCURATE

facial expressions - ekman

1. women are better than men at reading emotions in body language

2. six emotions are expressed the same way in ALL cultures: HAPPY, SAD, SURPRISE, ANGER, DISGUST, FEAR

it is believed this is the result of evolution/not learning. the facial muscles serve an important purpose. (brows drop when angry to protect eyes from a punch)

display rules

socially learned norms within a culture that dictate how emotions should be expressed; these common facial expressions are seen throughout cultures. body language and gestures however, vary by culture

facial feedback effect

smiling makes you feel happy! when people smile, the facial muscles regulate the flow of air and temperature that can create a good feeling. when we imitate others’ facial expressions, we also feel the way they feel.

fear

1. adaptive response preparing our bodies to flee danger

2. acquired through classical conditioning or observational learning

3. may have a biological predisposition in how the amygdala responds

anger

1. caused by annoyances, odors, temperatures, aches and pains

2. how to channel anger appropriately? exercise, play music, talking

3. expressing anger usually leads to more anger - non cathartic

adaptation-level principle

we adapt to levels of a stimulus and need something even better to make us happy; ex. if used to getting B’s we need to now get A’s to feel happy about report card

relative-deprivation principle

sense that we are worse off than other with whom we compare ourselves. we look to those who are more successful/happy/wealthy than ourselves and feel envy rather than compare ourselves to those worse off and feel happy. ex. child gets a new toy and is excited until he sees the neighbor who has a bigger toy

predictors of happiness

high self-esteem, out-going, friends, work, faith, sleep, exercise