Buraphon 9th Biology Finals

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Polymerization

The process in which small molecules (monomers) form larger molecules referred to as polymers.

Monomers

The building blocks of polymers, e.g amino acids.

Carbohydrates

Sugar molecules used as energy, like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Made up of monosaccharides.

Monosaccharides

The monomers of carbohydrates; simple sugars. Things like glucose, galactose, and fructose. They're composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Proteins

Macromolecules composed of amino acids, with specific functions depending on the shape.

Amino Acids

The building blocks of proteins. They join together to make peptides, which interact with other peptides to form proteins.

Nucleic Acids

Store and transmit genetic information. They're made of nucleotides. DNA & RNA are the two main types of nucleic acids.

Nucleotides

The building blocks of nucleic acids, they're composed of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Lipids

The only macromolecules that aren't polymers. They can store energy or act as structural components.

Enzymes

Proteins that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction, also referred to as catalysts because they catalyze chemical reactions.

Activation Energy

The amount of energy needed to start a reaction.

Active Site

The part of an enzyme where a substrate binds.

Substrate

The substance that an enzyme acts on.

Enzyme Substrate Complex

A temporary molecule formed when a substrate bonds with its respective enzyme.

Denatured

In the context of enzymes, a denatured enzyme has lost its shape and can no longer bond with its substrate.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate, the source of energy use and storage at a molecular level.

ADP

Adenosine diphosphate, basically an ATP molecule with only 2 phosphate groups.

Heterotrophs

Organisms that consume other things to obtain energy.

Autotrophs

Organisms that make their own energy.

Photosynthesis Equation

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Light Dependent Reaction

One of the two reactions in photosynthesis.

Light Independent Reaction

Also known as the Calvin cycle, one of the two reactions in photosynthesis.

Light-dependent reaction

Light energy is absorbed by pigment molecules like chlorophyll in thylakoid membranes, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP production via ATP synthase and reduces NADP+ to NADPH, with water splitting releasing oxygen.

Light-independent reaction

Also known as the Calvin cycle, where CO2 enters the stroma, binds with RuBP to form an unstable 6-carbon molecule that splits into two 3-carbon compounds, which are converted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) using ATP and NADPH.

Cellular respiration equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (glucose + oxygen is converted to carbon dioxide + water + ATP).

Stages of cellular respiration

Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and electron transport chain.

Glycolysis

In the cytoplasm, one glucose molecule is broken down into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, producing two NADH molecules, with a net gain of 2 ATP.

Krebs Cycle

In the matrix of the mitochondria, pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide, producing 8 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.

Electron transport chain

Uses high energy electrons from glycolysis and Krebs cycle to convert ADP to ATP, producing typically 32-34 ATP molecules.

Eukaryotes

Organisms made from cells with membrane bound organelles, typically multicellular and complex, with DNA stored in the nucleus.

Prokaryotes

Organisms made from cells without membrane bound organelles, usually single celled and less complex, with DNA stored in the nucleoid.

Vacuoles

Organelles that store water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates.

Vesicles

Organelles that store and move materials between organelles.

Lysosomes

Organelles filled with enzymes used to break down lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins into usable molecules.

Cytoskeleton

A network of protein filaments in eukaryotic cells that gives a cell its shape and organization.

Microfilaments

Thread-like structures in the cytoskeleton used to support and move the cell.

Microtubules

Hollow structures in the cytoskeleton that maintain cell shape.

Flagella

Protein-based filaments in prokaryotes used to help the cell move.

Pili

Protein-based filaments in prokaryotes that assist in movement.

Ribosomes

Small particles of RNA and protein in the cytoplasm that produce proteins.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

An organelle where lipid components are assembled, along with proteins and other materials.

Rough ER

A type of endoplasmic reticulum involved in protein synthesis, characterized by ribosomes on its surface.

Smooth ER

A type of endoplasmic reticulum that contains enzymes for lipid synthesis and drug detoxification.

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and other things for storage/release.

Cell walls

Support/protect the cell.

Cell membrane

Supports the cell and regulates what goes in and out of said cell.

Homeostasis

The existence and maintenance of a relatively consistent environment in the body.

Unicellular organisms

Organisms made of one cell.

Multicellular organisms

Organisms that have specialized cells for each task, and therefore the individual cells are incapable of surviving by themselves.

Cells

Make tissue, tissue makes organs, organs make systems.

Cell communication

Cells in multicellular organisms must communicate to survive.

Cell division

Cells are limited by their amounts of DNA and before they get too big they perform this process.

Fluid surrounding cells

Each cell is surrounded by a small amount of fluid.

Negative feedback

Turns things off.

Positive feedback

Turns on mechanics to amplify a particular response.

Example of negative feedback

Shivering when you're cold and sweating when you're hot.

Example of positive feedback

Contractions during childbirth.

Frederick Griffith

Isolated two strands of bacteria, a R and S strain, and proposed that there was a chemical factor that caused the change, referring to the process as transformation.

Oswald Avery

Discovered that DNA stores and transmits genetic information from one generation of bacteria to the next.

The Hershey-Chase Experiment

Proved that DNA carries genetic information, not the protein coat, by using radioactive isotopes.

Erwin Chargaff

Discovered that the percentages of Adenine & Thymine bases are equal for any piece of DNA, and the same rule applies to Guanine & Cytosine.

Rosalind Franklin

Used X-Ray diffraction to discover that DNA is coiled, has two strands, and that the nitrogenous bases are near the center.

Watson & Crick

Built 3D models of DNA and discovered the double helix model of DNA.

Meselson-Stahl Experiment

Conducted the pulse chase experiment which proved that DNA had a semiconservative model of replication.

DNA

A nucleic acid made of nucleotides joined into strands by covalent bonds; contains genetic information.

Replication

Occurs when a DNA strand is unwound, and each strand acts as a template for a new strand to be synthesized.

Adenine

A nucleotide that bonds with thymine (T).

Thymine

A nucleotide that bonds with adenine (A).

Guanine

A nucleotide that bonds with cytosine (C).

Cytosine

A nucleotide that bonds with guanine (G).

RNA

Single stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar ribose and has uracil instead of thymine.

mRNA

A messenger that delivers instructions via codons.

rRNA

Combines proteins to form ribosomes.

tRNA

Carries amino acids to the ribosome.

Polypeptides

Long chains of amino acids; proteins are just long chains of amino acids.

Genetic code

Read in 3 base increments, with 64 possible codons.

Start codon

AUG is the 'start' codon.

Stop codons

UGA, UAA, & UAG are 'stop' codons.

Transcription

The process of synthesizing a RNA molecule from a DNA template, occurring in the nucleus for eukaryotes and in the cytoplasm for prokaryotes.

Translation

The assembly of a protein from mRNA, occurring in the cytoplasm.

Initiation

The first step of translation, starting when a ribosome attaches to an mRNA in the cytoplasm.

Elongation

The second step of translation, where the ribosome shifts the mRNA to read again and directs tRNA to bring specific amino acids.

Termination

The third and final step of translation, where the polypeptide grows until a stop codon is read, releasing the polypeptide and mRNA.

Central dogma of molecular biology

A theory stating that genetic information flows only in one direction, from DNA, to RNA, to protein, or RNA directly to protein.

Mutations

Heritable changes in genetic information.

Gene mutations

Mutations that include point & frameshift mutations, usually occurring during DNA replication.

Point mutation

Substitutions are the only type of point mutation, where a base is replaced with a different base.

Frameshift mutations

Include insertions and deletions, which alter the reading frame of the genetic code.

Insertions

When a base is added into the strand.

Deletions

When a base is deleted from the strand.

Asexual reproduction

A process where offspring are made who are genetically identical to the parent, via binary fission, budding, and fragmentation.

Binary fission

The parent cell splits in half to create two new organisms (daughter cells).

Budding

The parent cell creates a small cell known as a bud, which develops until released.

Fragmentation

The parent splits into fragments, each forming into a new organism.

Sexual reproduction

A process where two parents create genetically unique offspring through the combination of gametes.

Gametes

Haploid sperm/egg cells created via meiosis.

Meiosis

Cell division that creates gametes, resulting in human gametes having 23 chromosomes in total.

Diploid

A cell with two sets of chromosomes.

Haploid

Cells with only one set of chromosomes.

Zygote

The cell made when a haploid sperm and haploid egg cell combine.