Complete AICE Environmental Management Review

Name all 7 continents

Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Oceania, Europe, North America, South America

Name all 5 oceans

Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean

LICs

low income countries

MICs

middle income countries

HICs

high income countries

Sustainability

the ability to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Hypothesis Formula

There will be a(n) [direct/inverse] relationship between [insert combination of experiment-specific variables here]

(NEVER SAY THE WORD PROVES)

Quantitive data

numerical data

Qualitative data

descriptive data

independent variable

the manipulated variable

Dependent variable

the measured variable

Limitations can lead to...

uncertainty in results

Theory

a hypothesis that is consistently supported by investigation and observation

What is used to collect representative date?

sampling strategies

How does random sampling decrease bias?

It removes human choice from the procedure so the results are not inadvertently influenced.

Random Sampling

each item/individual has an equal probability of being chosen

- best used for smaller data sets

- can produce more representative results

Systematic Sampling

selects items using an interval

- best when data does not exhibit patterns and manipulation risk is low

- best for wide study area

- may cause over or under representation due to arbitrary parameters

Selection Bias

occurs when the selection for the sample is not representative of the population

Measurement Bias

happens when there is faulty equipment

Population Density

population size/total land area

Quadrats

3 types: frame, grid, point

Pros:

- good for observing changes in an entire population over time

- easy to design and carry out

- useful for population density

Cons:

- design flaws could introduce errors (ex. incorrect quadrat size relative to the size of the species being sampled)

- not good for measuring dispersion patterns

Frame Quadrat

- a square frame is used to outline a sample area

Steps:

1. determine quadrat size (m^2)

2. count individuals in quadrat

3. individuals/area

(example on 2.3 ppt slide 39)

- can also be used to calculate percentage cover

Grid Quadrat

- measures percent frequency

Steps:

1. count the number of squares where the species is present

2. count number of total squares

3. squares with species/total squares = %

(example on 2.3 ppt slide 40)

Percent Coverage

percent of area within a quadrat covered by a single species (subjectivity due to estimations)

Point Quadrat

- pin dropped through holes in a horizontal bar, each species touched by a pin is counted

Pros:

- good for dense vegetation

- less subjective when calculating % cover

Cons:

- bad for plants larger than the frame

- overestimates tall, thin leaved plants

Pitfall Traps

Pros:

- passive, easily installable

- can help with calculating biodiversity

Cons:

- non-selective in what species it catches

- trapped animals could harm one another

- not good for population density

Sweep Nets

Pros:

- good for catching insects and animals in grass

- fast and allows for specificity

Cons:

- human error can cause variability

- easily damaged

- not suitable for low-to-the-ground species

Beating Trays

Pros:

- good for beetles and larva

Cons:

- unwanted material may drop onto the tray

- variability as a result of time or weather

Kick Nets/Sampling

Pros:

- can quick and easy

Cons:

- only catches a portion of the species

- not good for population density

- underestimates invertebrates that are attached to stones or heavy

Light Traps

Pros:

- cheap and portable

- collects large samples of and varieties of insects

- monitors disease-carrying insects

Cons:

- ineffective in the presence of other light

- variable based on different species' response to light

- may attract disease-carrying insects

Capture-Mark-Recapture

- measures population of individual species (assuming population does not change, there is random sampling, marks cannot be removed, and there is enough time for marked animals to be randomly dispersed amongst the population)

Questionnaires and Interviews

Pros:

- lots of data in a short period

- typically cheap

- broad info rang

Cons:

- may get too much or too little data

- people are unreliable

- questions may introduce bias

- no verification of data

General Sampling Limitations

- chance of bias

- difficult to get a representative sample

- species may be mis-identified if similar

- results may be skewed by inconsistent counting

Lincoln Index

- based on Capture-Mark-Recapture

(example problem in 2.3 ppt slide 29)

Species Richness

the number of species in a community

Species Evenness

a measure of relative abundance of the populations of different species in an area

Simpson's Index of Diversity

- used to quantify an area's biodiversity by comparing species richness and species evenness

- max diversity is 1 and minimum diversity is 0 (0-1 range)

- example on 2.3 ppt slide 35

ACFOR

- good for quick and easy sampling

- Abundant, Common, Frequent, Occasional, Rare

- subjective and not quantitative

Calculate Relative Species Abundance

# of species from one group/total # of species from all groups

Methods of Data Collection (Technology Specific)

- geospatial systems

- satellite sensors

- radio tracking

- computer modeling

- crowdsourcing

Big Data

"extremely large data sets that may be analyzed computationally to reveal patterns, trends, and associations"

Major atmosphere components

NITROGEN, oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon, water vapor

Troposphere

- Temp. decreases with height (adiabatic cooling - convection currents)

- 10-11 km

- "weather layer" because water is here

- densest layer

Stratosphere

- home to the ozone layer

- 20-60 km

- air gets warmer as altitude increases because the ozone layer absorbs UV radiation

Mesosphere

- temperature decreases to nearly 100 C

- low pressure

- meteoroids burn up here

Thermosphere

- up to 1,000 km

- temp. is high due to direct solar radiation

- low pressure and density

- aurora borealis is here because solar energy strips electrons from gas molecules, forming ions

Where is the ozone layer located?

stratosphere

Ozone Layer

- NOT RELATED TO GROUND LEVEL OZONE OR CLIMATE CHANGE

- absorbs UV radiation

- concentration is measured in Dobson units

Aerosals

tiny liquid and solid particles resulting from forest fires, mineral dust from sandstorms, sea spray, volcanic eruptions, and human introduced pollution

- They provide a surface for water to condense (essential in the formation of clouds)

What is climate determined by?

topography, wind and ocean currents, latitude

Albedo

the amount of energy reflected back to space

Surface area of the sun's rays

rays near the poles are diffused, leading to less isolation

Earth's Energy Budget

the culmination of the energy moving through wind and ocean currents (thermohaline circulation)

Carbon Cycle Input and Outputs

Photosynthesis - removes

Respiration - adds

Feeding/Biomass - changes state

Decomposition - adds

Fossilisation - removes

Combustion - adds

Major Carbon Stores

vegetation (TREES) and the ocean

Positive Feedback Loop

initial warning triggers events that amplify the effects of warming (BAD)

Negative Feedback Loop

initial warning triggers events that reduce the effects of global warming (GOOD)

Natural Greenhouse Effect

necessary because GHGs trap heat in the atmosphere (without it the surface temp. would be about -18 C)

natural = good

human-caused = bad

Primary Air Pollution

added directly to the atmosphere

Secondary Air Pollution

results from one or more chemical reactions

Particulates/Aerosols

Sources: dust, diesel engines, power plants, wood burning

Effects: respiratory issues, premature death, worsened lung function, eye irritation, reduced visibility, discoloration of buildings and statues

Removal: use a electrostatic precipitator (removes particulates using static cling) to filter smokestacks

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Sources: volcanoes, fires/wood burning, fossil fuel burning (specifically petroleum - transportation)

Effects: headaches, dizziness, low oxygen levels (death), heart damage

Removal: regulate car emissions, have developing countries use kerosine stoves instead of wood burning stoves

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Sources: volcanoes, forest fires, respiration, burning fossil fuels, car combustion

Effects: climate change = death

Removal: The Paris Climate Agreement

Sulfur Oxides

Sources: BURNING OF COAL

Effects: ACID RAIN, kills crops and forests, kills fish, removes soil nutrients, corrodes stone and metal, respiratory harm

Removal: flue gas (combustion/exhaust from power plants) cleaner

Flue Gas Cleaner

removes SO2 using water

also known as a wet scrubber

Nitrogen Oxides

Sources: TRANSPORTATION (combustion/burning of gasoline)

Effects: lung damage, acid rain, yellow smog

Removal: reduce car emissions, catalytic converter

Catalytic Converter

removes pollutants from motor vehicle exhaust by oxidizing them into CO2 and H2O or reducing them to nitrogen

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Sources: car exhaust, paints, varnishes, coatings, petroleum products, perfumes, nail polish (smelly things)

Effects: respiratory issues and some are carcinogenic (mostly harmless though)

Removal: reduce their exposure and classify them as hazardous so they can be regulated

Ground-Level Ozone

Sources: NOx + VOCs + SUN ---> O3 (ground level ozone)

this reaction requires clear and sunny skies

Effects: lung and vegetation damage, smog

Removal: regulate NOx and VOCs

Temperature Inversion

a cooler layer of air is trapped by a warmer layer due to warm fronts (similar concept to anvil clouds)

Urban Heat Island Effect

cities are hotter than their surrounding areas due to...

- paved surfaces and human activities that release heat

- tall buildings reduce albedo

- particulates scatter radiation

Acid Depositions

a mix of air pollutants that deposit from the atmosphere as acidic wet deposition/acid rain (with a pH <5.6) or acidic dry deposition

Wet Deposition

acid rain/snow

Dry Deposition

acidity is incorporated into dust/smoke and fall to the ground

it washes away and, in turn, makes runoff acidic

Formation of Acid Deposition

- 2SO3 + H2O --> H2SO4 (sulfur dioxide reacts with water and oxygen in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid

- 2NO2 + H2O --> HNO3 + HNO2 (nitrogen monoxide reacts with oxygen and water in the atmosphere to form nitric acid)

Impacts of Acid Deposition

- defoliation as a result of damage to roots and leaves

- reduced crop yield

- chemical weathering of stones and bricks, weakening building structures and eroding significant cultural statues or artifacts

- aluminum in soil washes into waterways, causing fish to produce excess mucus and suffocate

- most fish eggs cannot hatch at pH 5

Photochemical Smog

a mixture of air pollutants and particulates, including ground level

ozone, that is formed when oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the

presence of sunlight

Impacts:

- eye and respiratory irritation

- decreased crop yields

- deterioration of plastics and rubber

Strategies for Managing Air Pollution

- reduced use of fossil fuels

- reducing...

-> SO2 using flue gas cleaners

-> oxides and nitrogen with catalytic converters

-> particulates with electrostatic precipitators

-> VOCs with safe disposal

-> vehicle emissions

- legislation

- polluter pays principal

Ozone Depletion

The basics:

1. UV radiation from the sun breaks down CFCs which releases a Chlorine atom

2. The Chlorine atom breaks apart an ozone molecule

3. The reaction happens over and over

Extra info:

- CFCs from aerosols and refrigerants do not break down in the troposphere and float up to the stratosphere

Ozone Hole

an area where the average concentration of ozone is below 200 Dobson Units

Why has ozone depletion been the greatest over Antarctica?

- the polar vortex: strong winds encircle the poles during the long winter periods and the circular vortex this creates traps air movement into and out of the region for months

- polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs): special clouds formed in low temperatures (<-100F) and high altitudes (80,000 ft) that concentrate CFCs, speeding up ozone depletion

Impacts of Ozone Depletion

increase UV radiation leading to:

- human health issues (cataracts, skin cancer)

- decreased crop yields

- loss of biodiversity in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems

- degradation of materials used in clothing and construction

International Agreements

The Montreal Protocol (1987) - The signed countries pledged to regulate their usage of ozone-depleting chemicals (It worked!)

HCFCs

a substitute for ozone-depleting substances

however, it has a global warming potential 1,430x that of CO2

F-gases

a substitute for ozone-depleting substances

however, it has a global warming potential 23,000x that of CO2

Rowland-Molina Ozone Destruction Hypothesis

Rowland and Molina discovered that CFCs were depleting the ozone layer but their hypothesis was originally not accepted.

However, further research and data was collected by others and the theory was confirmed.

Greenhouse Gases

gases in the atmosphere that absorb infrared radiation

- Carbon dioxide

- Water vapor

- Methane

Why are scientists more worried about CO2 than methane?

Methane is more potent but CO2 stays in the atmosphere for longer (about 100 years) and CO2 is more abundant.

Major Sources of Greenhouse Gases

- combustion of fossil fuels (CO2 and H2O)

- rice fields, livestock, landfill sites (methane)

How do greenhouse gases lead to global warming?

Shortwave UV radiation from the sun is absorbed by the Earth's surface and re-radiated out as longwave IR radiation. GHGs trap longwave IR radiation that would otherwise return to space. The GHGs then re-radiate this heat back into the troposphere.

Difficulties of Monitoring and Predicting Climate Change

- Climate change cannot be linked to a single events and therefore its monitoring and predicting is reliant on shifting probability curves and long term trends

- Models can vary and show a range of projections so predictions may differ (though they are fairly consistent in that things are pretty bad)

- Proxy tools need to be used to determine historical climate change (ex. tree rings, ice cores, and rock composition) but there is still limited historical data

- Political opinions vary

Impacts of Climate Change

- Temperature increase and changing rain patterns (droughts, coral bleaching, loss of biodiversity)

- Sea level rises due to meltwater and thermal expansion

- Ocean and wind currents can change due to temperature differences

- Melting sea ice, ice sheets, glaciers, and permafrost from the bottom up (habitat loss, sea level rise, loss of biodiversity, flooding)

- Less ice means the Earth absorbs more energy and heats faster (less albedo)

- Ice stores carbon that releases when it melts

- More extreme weather events (damage property and loss of life)

- Food insecurity (due to drought, increased food prices, less crop yield, etc.)

- Less food, energy, and water security

How does climate change impact human populations?

- forced migration (loss of homes and farmland)

- increased drought and desertification

- negative impacts of some economic activities (ex. tourism)

Strategies to reduce GHG Emissions

- fewer children per women

- plant-based diets!!

- energy-efficient lifestyles (ex. bikes, public transportation)

- reduce deforestation (trees are carbon stores)

- changing energy policies (less fossil fuels)

- better urban design policies (see notes)

- international agreements

Geo-Engineering Strategies to Counteract Climate Change

Solar Radiation Management (SRM)

a theoretical approach for reducing some of the impacts of climate change and involves reflecting a small amount of sunlight back out into space (albedo enhancement)

ex.

- spraying seawater into the lower atmosphere to brighten marine clouds

- spraying sulfate particles into the stratosphere to reflect sunlight

Population Density Formula

# of people/area

Growth Rate

% increase of population size over time; affected by (birth-death) and (immigration-emigration)

Crude Death/Birth Rate

# per 1,000 individuals

Dependency Ratio

- a measure of the ratio of the number of dependents to the total work-age population in a country or region

(dependents = people too young/old to work)

- increased ratio means financial problems for government (a ratio of 60 means that, for every 100 workers, 60 people depend on them)

DR = [(% of pop 0-14 + % of pop 65 +)/(% of pop 15-65)]x100

- example on Unit 3 Review Slide 12

- typically higher in LICs because there are more kids

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

estimate of the average # of children one woman will have